AccScience Publishing / ESAM / Volume 2 / Issue 1 / DOI: 10.36922/ESAM026060003
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PERSPECTIVE ARTICLE

Why semiconductor additive manufacturing is challenging—and what comes next

Ali Ghasemi1* ,  Swee Leong Sing1*
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1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Design and Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore
ESAM 2026, 2(1), 026060003 https://doi.org/10.36922/ESAM026060003
Received: 7 February 2026 | Revised: 26 February 2026 | Accepted: 28 February 2026 | Published online: 26 March 2026
© 2026 by the Author(s). This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ )
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Abstract

Semiconductors underpin modern electronics, optoelectronics, sensing, and energy technologies, yet their manufacturing remains dominated by centralized, tool-intensive, and largely planar process flows. Additive manufacturing (AM) offers a complementary pathway that can reduce material waste, accelerate prototyping, and unlock three-dimensional (3D) semiconductor architectures that are difficult to realize using conventional fabrication. However, AM of semiconductors is still in its infancy and has been demonstrated for only a limited set of materials and processes. This perspective synthesizes the current landscape of semiconductor AM by compiling reported 3D-printable semiconductor systems and mapping them to the corresponding AM techniques, including laser powder bed fusion, selective laser sintering, gas-phase reactive AM, inkjet printing, electrohydrodynamic redox printing, two-photon lithography, aerosol jet printing, extrusion-based AM, and laser-directed energy deposition. The key process-specific barriers are critically discussed—spanning feedstock limitations, densification and cracking, stoichiometry control and volatilization, texture and compositional heterogeneity, post-processing burdens, contamination, and scalability. On this basis, a length-scale–guided roadmap is proposed: laser powder bed fusion is positioned as the most promising route for cm–mm thermoelectric architectures, with advances in substrate/feedstock design, atmosphere control, and microstructure/defect engineering; ink-based and reactive approaches are highlighted for sub-mm to micro-scale functional devices through improved ink chemistry, 3D buildup, and multi-material integration; and electrohydrodynamic redox printing/two-photon lithography are identified as leading candidates for sub-micron to nanoscale fabrication, where material diversification, low-temperature conversion, residue mitigation, and hybrid integration with conventional microfabrication are essential. Collectively, this perspective clarifies terminology, consolidates the emerging evidence base, and outlines research priorities required to transition semiconductor AM from proof-of-concept demonstrations toward robust, application-relevant device manufacturing.

Graphical abstract
Keywords
Additive manufacturing
Three-dimensional printing
Semiconductor
Laser powder bed fusion
Ink-based printing
Two-photon lithography
Funding
None.
Conflict of interest
Swee Leong Sing is the Editor-in-Chief of this journal, but was not in any way involved in the editorial and peer-review process conducted for this paper, directly or indirectly. Separately, other authors declared that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have influenced the work reported in this paper.
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