Perceived safety in urban green spaces: Environmental affordances, social legibility, and the Chinese urban context
Urban green spaces are widely valued as infrastructure for physical health and psychological restoration, yet they can also be experienced as places of anxiety when fear of crime discourages use. This tension matters for urban planning: even where victimization in parks is relatively uncommon, perceived insecurity can limit access to the benefits of green infrastructure. Existing theories tend to be divided between design-centered approaches, such as Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design, and sociological accounts that emphasize disorder, cohesion, or trauma. This division leaves underexplored the ways in which physical settings mediate social signals. In rapidly urbanizing, high-density Chinese cities, where parks are both spatially constrained and socially active, this relationship is especially visible. Using an integrative review, this article draws on foundational international theories and recent empirical studies of Chinese and other high-density urban green spaces to develop the Situated Perception of Safety model. The model combines environmental affordances and social legibility to understand safety as a situated process of interpretation rather than a fixed property of place. It argues that perceived safety depends on whether users can read signs of care, anticipate possible actions, and interpret encounters with other park users. Therefore, the article shifts attention from a defensive logic of removing risk to a more inclusive logic of cultivating everyday presence, offering a framework for designing urban green spaces that are accessible in both physical and psychological terms.
Appleton, J. (1975). The experience of landscape. Wiley.
Aspinall, P., Mavros, P., Coyne, R., & Roe, J. (2015). The urban brain: analysing outdoor physical activity with mobile EEG. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 49(4), 272-276. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2012-091877
Baran, P. K., Tabrizian, P., Zhai, Y., Smith, J. W., & Floyd, M. F. (2018). An exploratory study of perceived safety in a neighborhood park using immersive virtual environments. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 35, 72-81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2018.08.009
Carmona, M. (2019). Place value: Place quality and its impact on health, social, economic and environmental outcomes. Journal of Urban Design, 24(1), 1-48. https://doi.org/10.1080/13574809.2018.1472523
Ceccato, V. (2016). Public space and the situational conditions of crime and fear. International Criminal Justice Review, 26(2), 69-79. https://doi.org/10.1177/1057567716639099
Chen, S., Lin, S., Yao, Y., & Zhou, X. (2024). Urban public space safety perception and the influence of the built environment from a female perspective: Combining street view data and deep learning. Land, 13(12), 2108. https://doi.org/10.3390/land13122108
Chen, X., & Marzbali, M. H. (2024). How urban park features impact perceived safety by considering the role of time spent in the park, gender, and parental status. Cities, 153, 105272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2024.105272
Chen, X., Marzbali, M. H., & Armitage, R. (2025). Perceived safety in urban parks: CPTED, place attachment and the COVID-19 paradigm. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 1-26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-025-06865-2
Cozens, P., & Love, T. (2015). A review and current status of crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED). Journal of Planning Literature, 30(4), 393-412. https://doi.org/10.1177/0885412215595440
El-Metwally, Y., Khalifa, M., & Elshater, A. (2021). Quantitative study for applying prospect-refuge theory on perceived safety in Al-Azhar Park, Egypt. Ain Shams Engineering Journal, 12(4), 4247-4260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asej.2021.04.016
Gargiulo, I., Garcia, X., Benages-Albert, M., Martinez, J., Pfeffer, K., & Vall-Casas, P. (2020). Women’s safety perception assessment in an urban stream corridor: Developing a safety map based on qualitative GIS. Landscape and Urban Planning, 198, 103779. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2020.103779
Gibson, J. J. (1979). The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception: Classic Edition. Houghton Mifflin.
Haans, A., & De Kort, Y. A. (2012). Light distribution in dynamic street lighting: Two experimental studies on its effects on perceived safety, prospect, concealment, and escape. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 32(4), 342-352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2012.05.006
Hoover, F. A., & Lim, T. C. (2021). Examining privilege and power in US urban parks and open space during the double crises of antiblack racism and COVID-19. Socio-Ecological Practice Research, 3(1), 55-70. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42532-020-00070-3
Hou, F., Marzbali, M. H., Maghsoodi Tilaki, M. J., & Abdullah, A. (2025). Rethinking urban greening: Implications of crime prevention through environmental design for enhancing perceived safety in Baitashan park, Lanzhou. Urban Science, 9(1), 9. https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansci9010009
Iqbal, A., & Ceccato, V. (2016). Is CPTED useful to guide the inventory of safety in parks? A study case in Stockholm, Sweden. International Criminal Justice Review, 26(2), 150-168. https://doi.org/10.1177/1057567716639353
Jacobs, J. (1961). The Death and Life of Great American Cities. New York: Random House.
Jansson, M., Fors, H., Lindgren, T., & Wiström, B. (2013). Perceived personal safety in relation to urban woodland vegetation–A review. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 12(2), 127-133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2013.01.005
Jorgensen, A., & Anthopoulou, A. (2007). Enjoyment and fear in urban woodlands–Does age make a difference?. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 6(4), 267-278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2007.05.004
Kaplan, R., & Kaplan, S. (1989). The experience of nature: A psychological perspective. Cambridge university press.
Kaplan, S. (1995). The restorative benefits of nature: Toward an integrative framework. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 15(3), 169-182. https://doi.org/10.1016/0272-4944(95)90001-2
Kuo, F. E. (2011). Parks and other green environments: ‘essential components of a healthy human habitat’. Australasian Parks and Leisure, 14(1), 10-12.
Li, C., Du, C., Ge, S., & Tong, T. (2023). An eye-tracking study on visual perception of vegetation permeability in virtual reality forest exposure. Frontiers in Public Health, 11, 1089423. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2023.1089423
Li, X., Zhang, C., & Li, W. (2015). Does the visibility of greenery increase perceived safety in urban areas? Evidence from the place pulse 1.0 dataset. ISPRS International Journal of Geo- Information, 4(3), 1166-1183. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi4031166
Lis, A., & Iwankowski, P. (2021a). Why is dense vegetation in city parks unpopular? The mediative role of sense of privacy and safety. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 59, 126988. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2021.126988
Lis, A., & Iwankowski, P. (2021b). Where do we want to see other people while relaxing in a city park? Visual relationships with park users and their impact on preferences, safety and privacy. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 73, 101532. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2020.101532
Lis, A., Zienowicz, M., Kukowska, D., Zalewska, K., Iwankowski, P., & Shestak, V. (2023). How to light up the night? The impact of city park lighting on visitors’ sense of safety and preferences. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 89, 128124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2023.128124
Lorenc, T., Petticrew, M., Whitehead, M., Neary, D., Clayton, S., Wright, K., Thomson, H., Cummins, S., Sowden, A. and Renton, A. (2013). Fear of crime and the environment: systematic review of UK qualitative evidence. BMC Public Health, 13(1), 496. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-13-496
Lynch, K. (1960). The Image of the City. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Mahrous, A. M., Moustafa, Y. M., & Abou El-Ela, M. A. (2018). Physical characteristics and perceived security in urban parks: Investigation in the Egyptian context. Ain Shams Engineering Journal, 9(4), 3055-3066. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asej.2018.07.003
Mak, B. K., & Jim, C. Y. (2022). Contributions of human and environmental factors to concerns of personal safety and crime in urban parks. Security journal, 35(1), 263-293. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41284-020-00277-9
Mehta, D., & Gopalakrishnan, P. (2024). A user-centric CPTED-based approach to investigate physical environmental variables influencing perceived security of urban park users in Tiruchirappalli, India. Journal of Design and Built Environment, 24(1), 33-52. https://doi.org/10.22452/jdbe.vol24no1.3
Mihinjac, M., & Saville, G. (2019). Third-generation crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED). Social Sciences, 8(6), 182. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci8060182
Nassauer, J. I. (2011). Care and stewardship: From home to planet. Landscape and Urban Planning, 100(4), 321-323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2011.02.022
Newman, O. (1973). Defensible space: Crime prevention through urban design. New York: Collier Books.
Noszczyk, T., Gorzelany, J., Kukulska-Kozieł, A., & Hernik, J. (2022). The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the importance of urban green spaces to the public. Land Use Policy, 113, 105925. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2021.105925
Pafka, E., & Dovey, K. (2017). Permeability and interface catchment: measuring and mapping walkable access. Journal of Urbanism: International Research on Placemaking and Urban Sustainability, 10(2), 150-162. https://doi.org/10.1080/17549175.2016.1220413
Peters, K., Elands, B., & Buijs, A. (2010). Social interactions in urban parks: Stimulating social cohesion? Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 9(2), 93-100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2009.11.003
Polko, P., & Kimic, K. (2022). Gender as a factor differentiating the perceptions of safety in urban parks. Ain Shams Engineering Journal, 13(3), 101608. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asej.2021.09.032
Sezavar, N., Pazhouhanfar, M., Van Dongen, R. P., & Grahn, P. (2023). The importance of designing the spatial distribution and density of vegetation in urban parks for increased experience of safety. Journal of cleaner production, 403, 136768. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.136768
Sreetheran, M., & Van Den Bosch, C. C. K. (2014). A socio-ecological exploration of fear of crime in urban green spaces–A systematic review. Urban forestry & urban greening, 13(1), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2013.11.006
Stamps, A. (2014). Literature Review of Prospect and Refuge Theory: the first 214 references. https://doi.org/10.13140/2.1.4642.6249
Tabrizian, P., Baran, P. K., Smith, W. R., & Meentemeyer, R. K. (2018). Exploring perceived restoration potential of urban green enclosure through immersive virtual environments. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 55, 99-109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2018.01.001
Wang, J., Liu, N., Zou, J., Guo, Y., & Chen, H. (2023). The health perception of urban green spaces and its emotional impact on young adults: an empirical study from three cities in China. Frontiers in Public Health, 11, 1232216. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2023.1232216
Whittemore, R., & Knafl, K. (2005). The integrative review: updated methodology. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 52(5), 546-553. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2005.03621.x
Wilson, E. O. (1984). Biophilia. Harvard University Press.
Wilson, J. Q., & Kelling, G. L. (1982). Broken Windows. The Atlantic Monthly, 249, 29-38.
Withagen, R., & Caljouw, S. R. (2017). Aldo van Eyck’s playgrounds: Aesthetics, affordances, and creativity. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 1130. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01130
Zhao, J., & Huang, Y. (2021). Physical characteristics of urban green spaces in relation to perceived safety. Journal of Urban Planning and Development, 147(4), 05021032. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)UP.1943-5444.0000742