Assessing the adaptability of transit-oriented development indicators and structural-functional pathologies in the central fabric of Zanjan
Transit-oriented development (TOD) in historic urban fabric involves designing and implementing transportation systems that enhance accessibility, reduce traffic congestion, and preserve the cultural and historical identity of old neighborhoods. This approach is crucial in historic cities and traditional urban cores with significant cultural and social value. However, due to poor spatial management and inefficient accessibility-based planning, traffic congestion and unsustainable transportation patterns have resulted in undesirable spatial flows and increased public costs. This study employs an analytical-exploratory method to examine and assess TOD indicators in the central fabric of Zanjan. Data collection was conducted through both library research and field studies. Data analysis employed geographic information system-based methods, specifically the calculation of the Optimal Accessibility Index, inverse distance weighting interpolation, and weighted overlay network analysis in ArcGIS 10.8. The evaluation focused on key indicators such as population density, land use, land use diversity, activity center distribution, and transportation capacity. Based on the spatial mobility index using Euclidean geometry, 31% of the central fabric exhibited a balance between population mobility and activity distribution, allowing residents to access services within short distances due to land use diversity and mixed-use development. However, the central area of Zanjan does not align with TOD principles due to narrow and irregular street networks, uncoordinated intersections, high traffic volumes, and an underdeveloped public transportation system. To enhance TOD compatibility in Zanjan’s historic fabric, it is essential to limit private vehicle use, relocate incompatible land uses, encourage walking and cycling, maintain population density, and prevent the conversion of residential areas into commercial or service-oriented spaces.
Atkinson-Palombo, C., & Kuby, M. J. (2011). The geography of advance transit-oriented development in metropolitan Phoenix, Arizona, 2000–2007. Journal of Transport Geography, 19(2):189-199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2010.03.014
Bass Warner, S. (1978). Streetcar Suburbs: The Process of Growth in Boston 1870–1900. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Belzer, D., & Autler, G. (2012). Transit Oriented Development: Moving from Rhetoric to Reality. Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution Center on Urban and Metropolitan Policy and The Great American Station Foundation.
Bernick, M., & Cervero, R. (1997). Transit Villages for the 21st Century. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Boarnet, M. (2011). A broader context for land use and travel behavior, and a research agenda. Journal of the American Planning Association, 77(3):197-213.
Braswell, A. D. 2nd. (2013). Transit-Oriented Development, Urban Design Assessment of Transit Stations. 2nd ed. Atlanta: Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta Publication.
Calthorpe, P. (1993). Transit-oriented development guidelines for Sacramento. Build Environment, 23(3):68-122.
Calthorpe, P. (2013). The Next American Metropolis: Ecology, Community, and the American Dream. United States: Princeton Architectural Press.
Cervero, R. (2016). The Transit Metropolis: A Global Inquiry. Washington, DC: Island Press.
Chen, J. H., Nguyen, H. T. T., Chou, C. C., Wang, J. P., & Wang, T. K. (2021). Transit-oriented development: Exploring citizen perceptions in a booming city, Can Tho City, Vietnam. Sustainability, 13(6):19-37. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13031370
Dittmar, H., & Ohland, G. (2014). The New Transit Town: Best Practices in Transit-Oriented Development. Washington, DC: Island Press.
Duncan, M. (2017). Would the replacement of park-and-ride facilities with transit-oriented development reduce vehicle kilometers traveled in an auto-oriented US region? Transport Policy, 81:293-301.
Guerra, E., & Cervero, R. (2015). Is a Half-Mile Circle the Right Standard for TODs? ACCESS, Berkeley: University of California.
Hardy, D. K. (2018). Sustainability 101: A primer for ITE members. ITE Journal, 81:28-34.
Hazel, G. A. (2007). Megacities Challenges. Germany: Siemens AG.
Jamshidi, M. J. (2024). Polycentricity and TOD-ness synergy: A novel composite index for integrated development of employment centers and residential cores in transit-oriented neighborhoods. Journal of Transport Geography, 120(C):103994.
Jushi, R., Patel, K., & Joseph, Y. (2017). Transit-oriented development: Lessons from international experiences. Land and Environment, 5(9):12-29.
Krismawanti, M., & Destiawan, W. (2025). The impact of transit-oriented development on heritage cities: A study of Haliç Metro and its influence on Istanbul’s urban fabric. Journal of City: Branding and Authenticity, 2(2):121-137. https://doi.org/10.61511/jcbau.v2i2.2025.1429
Litman, T. (2016). Land use Impacts on Transport: How Land Use Factors Affect Travel Behavior. Victoria: Victoria Transport Policy Institute.
Manaugh, K., & Kreider, T. (2017). What is mixed use? Presenting an interaction method for measuring land use mix. Journal of Transport and Land Use, 6(1):63-72.
Martinez, M. (2010). Washington, D.C. launches the nation’s largest bike share program. Grist. Available at: https://grist.org/article/2010-09-20-washington-dc-launches-largest-bike-share-program/ [Last accessed on 2025 Sep 24].
Massachusetts Government. (2019). Smart Growth/Smart Energy Toolkit Modules: Transit-Oriented Development (TOD). Available from: https://www.mass.gov/service-details/ smart-growth-smart-energy-toolkit-modules-transit-oriented-development-tod [Last accessed on 2025 Sep 24].
Moore, A. T., Staley, S. R., & Poole, R. W. (2010). The role of VMT reduction in meeting climate change policy goals. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 44(8):565-574. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2010.03.012
Niles, J., & Nelson, D. (2011). Measuring the success of TOD. In: Prepared for the American Planning Association, National Planning Conference, Seattle, WA, p. 75-89.
Nutayakul, K., & Weerawat, W. (2025). Developing the reversed TOD index for unstructured TOD: The case study of Bangkok metro. Case Studies on Transport Policy, 19:101366. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cstp.2025.101366
Peng, C., Yang, S., Zhang, P., & Hu, S. (2025). Exploring nonlinear and interaction effects of TOD on housing rents using XGBoost. Cities, 158:105728.
Pojani, D., & Stead, D. (2014). Dutch planning policy: The resurgence of TOD. Land Use Policy, 41:357-367.
Ratner, K. A., & Goetz, A. R. (2013). The reshaping of land use and urban form in Denver through transit-oriented development. Cities, 30:31-46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2012.08.007
Reconnecting America’s Center for Transit-Oriented Development. (2017). Station Area Planning: How to Make Great Transit-Oriented Places (Technical Report TOD 202). Federal Transit Administration, USA.
Shen, H., & Ma, G. (2023). TOD mode: Study on land planning and land use optimization for urban rail transit station area. Archives of Transport, 66(2):33-43.
Singh, Y. J. (2015). Measuring Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) at Regional and Local Scales: A Planning Support Tool (PhD thesis, University of Twente, Faculty of Geo- Information Science and Earth Observation).
Smas, L., Schmitt, P., Perjo, L., & Tunström, M. (2016). Transit- Oriented Development and Sustainable Urban Planning. Färgfabriken: Austrian Institute for Spatial Planning.
Song, Y., de Jong, M., & Stead, D. (2021). Bypassing institutional barriers: New types of transit-oriented development in China. Cities, 113:103177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2021.103177
Spears, S., Boarnet, M. G., & Handy, S. (2018). Impacts of Land-Use Mix on Passenger Vehicle Use and Greenhouse Gas Emissions. California: California Environmental Protection Agency.
Su, Y., Wu, Y., Choguill, C. L., Luo, J., & Yu, X. (2024). Reflections on TOD in China: From land finance to inclusive growth. Journal of Urban Management, 13(2):294-307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jum.2024.01.001
Uddin, M. A., Hoque, M. S., Tamanna, T., Adiba, S., Muniruzzaman, S. M., & Parvez, M. S. (2023). A framework to measure transit-oriented development around transit nodes: Case study of a mass rapid transit system in Dhaka, Bangladesh. PLoS One, 18(1):e0280275. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0280275
Wang, J., Tan, W., & Huang, J. (2024). Extending TOD through the interrelationship between transport and land use: A case study of Beijing. Land Use Policy, 144:107257.
White, S. M., & McDaniel, J. B. (2009). TCRP Legal Research Digest 12: The Zoning and Real Estate Implications of Transit- Oriented Development. Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, p. 1-50.
Zanjan Municipality. (2023). Statistical Yearbook of Zanjan Municipality. Zanjan: Zanjan Municipality.