AccScience Publishing / MSAM / Volume 4 / Issue 3 / DOI: 10.36922/MSAM025220036
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ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

Explainable prediction of bead geometry in laser-arc hybrid additive manufacturing of Al–Cu alloy using a particle swarm optimization-based ensemble model

Runsheng Li1 ,  Hui Ma1 ,  Xingwang Bai2 ,  Boce Xue1 ,  Changze Li1 ,  Kui Zeng1 ,  Youheng Fu3 ,  Yonghui Liu4* ,  Yanzhen Zhang1*
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1 College of Mechanical and Electronic Engineering, China University of Petroleum (East China), Qingdao, Shandong, China
2 School of Mechanical Engineering, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, China
3 School of Materials Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
4 Shandong CharmRay Laser Technology Co., Ltd, Yantai, Shandong, China
MSAM 2025, 4(3), 025220036 https://doi.org/10.36922/MSAM025220036
Received: 26 May 2025 | Accepted: 17 June 2025 | Published online: 17 July 2025
© 2025 by the Author(s). This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ )
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Abstract

The weld bead is the basic structural unit in metal additive manufacturing, yet the multiphysics coupling inherent to hybrid laser-arc processing greatly complicates the prediction of bead dimensions. Despite the exploration of numerous predictive methods, research on explainable prediction of weld-bead dimensions remains limited. In this work, we developed a particle swarm optimization (PSO)-based ensemble prediction model (PSO-EP) for laser-arc hybrid additive manufacturing, and through SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) analysis, comprehensively uncovered the underlying links between process variables and bead geometry. Experimental evidence indicated that our PSO-EP outperformed individual models and alternative ensembles, delivering superior accuracy, reflected by an R-squared value of 0.9567 for bead width and an R-squared value of 0.9492 for bead height, and markedly lowering prediction errors. The SHAP findings indicated that weld speed is the dominant determinant of bead width, while laser power plays a pivotal role in bead height. Subsequent single-factor dependence analysis showed that different process variables had significantly different impacts on bead size across their respective value intervals. This study provides important theoretical support for the intelligent development of the laser-arc hybrid additive manufacturing process.

Graphical abstract
Keywords
Additive manufacturing
Ensemble learning
Laser-arc hybrid
Geometry prediction
Aluminum–copper alloys
Explainable analysis
Funding
This work was financially supported by the CNPC Innovation Foundation (Grant No. 2024DQ02-0306), Innovation and Entrepreneurship Leading Talent Project of Yantai Development Zone in 2022 (Grant No. 2022RC008), Natural Science Foundation of Shandong Province (Grant No. ZR2023QE164), Natural Science Foundation of Qingdao (Grant No. 23-2-1-83-zyyd-jch), and National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 52405359).
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
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Materials Science in Additive Manufacturing, Electronic ISSN: 2810-9635 Published by AccScience Publishing
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