AccScience Publishing / MI / Online First / DOI: 10.36922/MI025010143
Submit to MI
Cite this article
8
Views
Journal Browser
Volume | Year
Issue
Search
Forthcoming Issue
Current Issue
View All
News and Announcements
View All
REVIEW ARTICLE

Research progress and medical applications of material-functionalized phages

Bingxian Li1,2 ,  Huihui Mu1,2 ,  Xiting Lin1,2 ,  Daniel Cung Tha Thawng1,2 ,  Gang Li3* ,  Yanhui Yang1,2*
Show Less
1 Ningxia Key Laboratory of Infection and Immunity, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Ningxia Medical University, Ningxia, China
2 Ningxia Key Laboratory of Clinical and Pathogenic Microbiology, The First Clinical College of Ningxia Medical University, General Hospital of Ningxia Medical University, Ningxia, China
3 Medical Laboratory Center, General Hospital of Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, Ningxia, China
MI, 025010143 https://doi.org/10.36922/MI025010143
Received: 30 December 2025 | Revised: 24 February 2026 | Accepted: 10 April 2026 | Published online: 19 May 2026
© 2026 by the Author(s). This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ )
Download PDF
XML
Cite
Abstract

With the escalating crisis of antimicrobial resistance, the slow pace of traditional antibiotic development presents a critical and growing threat to global public health. Phage therapy, which offers benefits such as high specificity, self-replication, and minimal disruption to the microbiota, has emerged as a promising treatment option. However, its therapeutic potential faces several hurdles, including a limited antibacterial spectrum, inadequate in vivo efficacy, susceptibility to immune clearance, and inability to target intracellular bacteria and biofilm-associated infections. To overcome these issues, new delivery systems have been developed by combining engineered phages with functional materials, such as nanomaterials, hydrogels, and liposomes. This approach significantly improves phage targeting, stability, drug delivery capacity, and controlled release. Nevertheless, engineered phages face challenges such as complex host interactions and intestinal delivery. Future research should incorporate artificial intelligence-assisted design, cross-disciplinary teamwork, and innovative materials to develop phage delivery systems as groundbreaking tools against drug-resistant infections and complex diseases. This review discusses the potential uses of engineered phages in combination with antibiotic therapy, clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-CRISPR-associated protein gene editing, innovative smart drug delivery, and tumor immune environment control. It also examines the key challenges in translating laboratory studies to clinical use, including technical issues, immune response regulation, and safety concerns.

Keywords
Phage delivery system
Drug resistance
Engineered phage
CRISPR-Cas
Targeted therapy
Funding
This study was supported by grants from the Research Projects for Social Development of Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region (Grant No.2026BEG03004), Scientific Research Project of Ningxia Education Department (Grant No. NYG2024122), and the Interdisciplinary Research Program of Ningxia Medical University (Grant No. JCXK2025003).
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
References
  1. Chandrasekhar D, Joseph CM, Parambil JC, et al. Superbugs: An invicible threat in post antibiotic era. Clin Epidemiol Glob Health. 2024;28:101499. doi: 10.1016/j.cegh.2023.101499
  2. Bayda S, Adeel M, Tuccinardi T, Cordani M, Rizzolio F. The History of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology: From Chemical-Physical Applications to Nanomedicine. Molecules. 2019;25(1):112. doi: 10.3390/molecules25010112
  3. Kumar M, Parkhey P, Mishra SK, et al. Phage for drug delivery vehicles. Prog Mol Biol Transl Sci. 2023;201:191- 201. doi: 10.1016/bs.pmbts.2023.04.008
  4. Yao M, Zhu Y, Duan JA, Xiao P. Phage therapy: A novel approach to combat drug-resistant pathogens. Microbiol Res. 2025;298:128228. doi: 10.1016/j.micres.2025.128228
  5. Lin J, Du F, Long M, Li P. Limitations of Phage Therapy and Corresponding Optimization Strategies: A Review. Molecules. 2022;27(6). doi: 10.3390/molecules27061857
  6. Wang K, Zhang W, Huang Y, Zhang L, Lou CJSBJ. Application of phage therapy in the treatment of intracellular pathogens. Synth Biol J. 2023;4(4):676. doi: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-002
  7. Sahoo K, Meshram S. The Evolution of Phage Therapy: A Comprehensive Review of Current Applications and Future Innovations. Cureus. 2024;16(9):e70414. doi: 10.7759/cureus.70414
  8. Vila M, Balcão LMN, Balcão VM. Phage Delivery Strategies for Biocontrolling Human, Animal, and Plant Bacterial Infections: State of the Art. Pharmaceutics. 2024;16(3):374. doi: 10.3390/pharmaceutics16030374
  9. Manohar P, Madurantakam Royam M, Loh B, et al. Synergistic Effects of Phage-Antibiotic Combinations against Citrobacter amalonaticus. ACS Infect Dis. 2022;8(1):59-65. doi: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.1c00117
  10. Liu H, Li H, Liang Y, et al. Phage-delivered sensitisation with subsequent antibiotic treatment reveals sustained effect against antimicrobial resistant bacteria. Theranostics. 2020;10(14):6310-6321. doi: 10.7150/thno.42573
  11. Malik DJ, Sokolov IJ, Vinner GK, et al. Formulation, stabilisation and encapsulation of bacteriophage for phage therapy. Adv Colloid Interface Sci. 2017;249:100-133. doi: 10.1016/j.cis.2017.05.014
  12. Cao Y, Jiang A, Gao Q, Xiao B. Nanocoated bacterial carriers enhance oral bacteriophage delivery efficiency. Acta Pharm Sin B. 2025;15(8):4319-4321. doi: 10.1016/j.apsb.2025.05.037
  13. Zhao X, Zhong X, Yang S, et al. Guiding antibiotics towards their target using bacteriophage proteins. Nat Commun. 2024;15(1):5287. doi: 10.1038/s41467-024-49603-4
  14. Hosoya H, Dobroff AS, Driessen WH, et al. Integrated nanotechnology platform for tumor-targeted multimodal imaging and therapeutic cargo release. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2016;113(7):1877-1882. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1525796113
  15. Dunne M, Rupf B, Tala M, et al. Reprogramming Bacteriophage Host Range through Structure-Guided Design of Chimeric Receptor Binding Proteins. Cell Rep. 2019;29(5):1336-1350.e4. doi: 10.1016/j.celrep.2019.09.062
  16. Ju Z, Sun W. Drug delivery vectors based on filamentous bacteriophages and phage-mimetic nanoparticles. Drug Deliv. 2017;24(1):1898-1908. doi: 10.1080/10717544.2017.1410259
  17. Hayes WK, Gren ECK, Nelsen DR, et al. It’s a Small World After All: The Remarkable but Overlooked Diversity of Venomous Organisms, with Candidates Among Plants, Fungi, Protists, Bacteria, and Viruses. Toxins. 2025;17(3). doi: 10.3390/toxins17030099
  18. Heiman CM, Vacheron J, Keel C. Evolutionary and ecological role of extracellular contractile injection systems: from threat to weapon. Front Microbiol. 2023;14:1264877. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1264877
  19. Mattenberger Y, Knyazhanskaya ES, Shneider MM, et al. The spike tip protein of bacteriophage T4. bioRxiv. 2025. doi: 10.1101/2025.08.28.672839
  20. Nagakubo T, Nishiyama T, Yamamoto T, et al. Contractile injection systems facilitate sporogenic differentiation of Streptomyces davawensis through the action of a phage tapemeasure protein-related effector. Nat Commun. 2024;15(1):4442. doi: 10.1038/s41467-024-48834-9
  21. Petrovic Fabijan A, Lin RCY, Ho J, et al. Safety of bacteriophage therapy in severe Staphylococcus aureus infection. Nat Microbiol. 2020;5(3):465-472. doi: 10.1038/s41564-019-0634-z
  22. Xu J, Ericson CF, Lien YW, et al. Identification and structure of an extracellular contractile injection system from the marine bacterium Algoriphagus machipongonensis. Nat Microbiol. 2022;7(3):397-410. doi: 10.1038/s41564-022-01059-2
  23. Freeman KG, Mondal S, Macale LS, et al. Structure and infection dynamics of mycobacteriophage Bxb1. Cell. 2025;188(11):2925-2942.e17. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2025.03.027
  24. Jing G, Bin X, Xiaokui G, Jinhong Q, Infections. Biological characterization and genome sequence of KP002, a novel bacteriophage isolated from multiple-drug resistant Klebsiella pneumonia. J Microbes Infect. 2016;11(1):18-23
  25. Li S, Wu J, Wang Q, et al. The landscape of bacterial contractile injection systems across large-scale metagenomes. Microbiol Spectr. 2025;13(7):e0321324. doi: 10.1128/spectrum.03213-24
  26. Lin L. The expanding universe of contractile injection systems in bacteria. Curr Opin Microbiol. 2024;79:102465. doi: 10.1016/j.mib.2024.102465
  27. Casu B, Sallmen JW, Haas PE, et al. Function and firing of the Streptomyces coelicolor contractile injection system requires the membrane protein CisA. eLife. 2025;14. doi: 10.7554/eLife.104064
  28. Strathdee SA, Hatfull GF, Mutalik VK, Schooley RT. Phage therapy: From biological mechanisms to future directions. Cell. 2023;186(1):17-31. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2022.11.017
  29. Łobocka M, Dąbrowska K, Górski A. Engineered Bacteriophage Therapeutics: Rationale, Challenges and Future. BioDrugs. 2021;35(3):255-280. doi: 10.1007/s40259-021-00480-z
  30. Nagakubo T. Biological Functions and Applications of Virus-Related Bacterial Nanoparticles: A Review. Int J Mol Sci. 2022;23(5). doi: 10.3390/ijms23052595
  31. Yamashita W, Chihara K, Azam AH, et al. Phage engineering to overcome bacterial Tmn immunity in Dhillonvirus. Commun Biol. 2025;8(1):290. doi: 10.1038/s42003-025-07730-8
  32. Marín-Arraiza L, Roa-Eguiara A, Pape T, et al. Structural characterization of an extracellular contractile injection system from Photorhabdus luminescens in extended and contracted states. Nat Commun. 2025;16(1):9327. doi: 10.1038/s41467-025-64377-z
  33. Li F, Yu Z-x, Zhang M, et al. Progress in research on bacteriophage receptor-binding proteins and host range extension. Food Sci. 2023;44(23):252-260. doi: 10.7506/spkx1002-6630-20221203-03134
  34. Brödel AK, Charpenay LH, Galtier M, et al. In situ targeted base editing of bacteria in the mouse gut. Nature. 2024;632(8026):877-884. doi: 10.1038/s41586-024-07681-w
  35. Yang F, Wang L, Zhou J, et al. In Situ Structures of the Ultra- Long Extended and Contracted Tail of Myoviridae Phage P1. Viruses. 2023;15(6). doi: 10.3390/v15061267
  36. Yuan S, Shi J, Jiang J, Ma Y. Genome-scale top-down strategy to generate viable genome-reduced phages. Nucleic Acids Res. 2022;50(22):13183-13197. doi: 10.1093/nar/gkac1168
  37. Sun A, Li CP, Chen Z, et al. The compact Casπ (Cas12l) ‘bracelet’ provides a unique structural platform for DNA manipulation. Cell Res. 2023;33(3):229-244. doi: 10.1038/s41422-022-00771-2
  38. Zhou J, Wang L, Xiao H, et al. In situ structures of the contractile nanomachine myophage Mu in both its extended and contracted states. J Virol. 2025;99(3):e0205624. doi: 10.1128/jvi.02056-24
  39. Santos Apolonio J, Lima de Souza Gonçalves V, Cordeiro Santos ML, et al. Oncolytic virus therapy in cancer: A current review. World J Virol. 2021;10(5):229-255. doi: 10.5501/wjv.v10.i5.229
  40. Roberts A, Adler BA, Cress BF, et al. Phage-based delivery of CRISPR-associated transposases for targeted bacterial editing. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2025;122(30):e2504853122. doi: 10.1073/pnas.2504853122
  41. Park JY, Moon BY, Park JW, et al. Genetic engineering of a temperate phage-based delivery system for CRISPR/ Cas9 antimicrobials against Staphylococcus aureus. Sci Rep. 2017;7:44929. doi: 10.1038/srep44929
  42. Nittayasut N, Yata T, Chirakul S, et al. Non-replicative phage particles delivering CRISPR-Cas9 to target major blaCTX-M variants. PLoS ONE. 2024;19(5):e0303555. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0303555
  43. Yang Y, Du H, Zou G, et al. Encapsulation and delivery of phage as a novel method for gut flora manipulation in situ: A review. J Control Release. 2023;353:634-649. doi: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2022.11.048
  44. Wang Z, Fokine A, Guo X, et al. Structure of Vibrio Phage XM1, a Simple Contractile DNA Injection Machine. Viruses. 2023;15(8):1673. doi: 10.3390/v15081673
  45. Nagakubo T, Asamizu S, Yamamoto T, et al. Intracellular Phage Tail-Like Nanostructures Affect Susceptibility of Streptomyces lividans to Osmotic Stress. mSphere. 2023;8(3):e0011423. doi: 10.1128/msphere.00114-23
  46. Sen A, Nakamura T, Tarashi G, et al. Divergence of an extracellular contractile injection system infectivity elucidated by high resolution structural studies of its tail-baseplate complex. bioRxiv. 2025. doi: 10.1101/2025.07.21.665459
  47. Peng H, Chen IA, Qimron U. Engineering Phages to Fight Multidrug-Resistant Bacteria. Chem Rev. 2025;125(2):933- 971. doi: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.4c00681
  48. Wilson JS, Fortier LC, Fagan RP, Bullough PA. Molecular mechanism of bacteriophage contraction structure of an S-layer-penetrating bacteriophage. Life Sci Alliance. 2025;8(6):e202403088. doi: 10.26508/lsa.202403088
  49. Nethery MA, Hidalgo-Cantabrana C, Roberts A, Barrangou R. CRISPR-based engineering of phages for in situ bacterial base editing. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2022;119(46):e2206744119. doi: 10.1073/pnas.2206744119
  50. Chen Q, Tong YJ. Merging the frontiers: synthetic biology for advanced bacteriophage design. Synth Biol J. 2023;4(2):283. doi: 10.12211/2096-8280.2022-070
  51. Meeske AJ, Jia N, Cassel AK, et al. A phage-encoded anti- CRISPR enables complete evasion of type VI-A CRISPR-Cas immunity. Science. 2020;369(6499):54-59. doi: 10.1126/science.abb6151
  52. Hampton HG, Watson BNJ, Fineran PC. The arms race between bacteria and their phage foes. Nature. 2020;577(7790):327-336. doi: 10.1038/s41586-019-1894-8
  53. Jia H-J, Jia P-P, Yin S, et al. Engineering bacteriophages for enhanced host range and efficacy: insights from bacteriophage-bacteria interactions. Front Microbiol. 2023;14. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1172635
  54. Zhang J, He X. Living Bacteriophage Engineering for Functional Material Synthesis, Bioanalytical Sensing and Disease Theranostics. Targets. 2024;2(3):157-185. doi: 10.3390/targets2030010
  55. Abedon ST. Phage Therapy: Combating Evolution of Bacterial Resistance to Phages. Viruses. 2025;17(8):1094. doi: 10.3390/v17081094
  56. Evseev P, Shneider M, Miroshnikov K. Evolution of Phage Tail Sheath Protein. Viruses. 2022;14(6):1148. doi: 10.3390/v14061148
  57. Yoo MK, Kang SK, Choi JH, et al. Targeted delivery of chitosan nanoparticles to Peyer’s patch using M cell-homing peptide selected by phage display technique. Biomaterials. 2010;31(30):7738-7747. doi: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2010.06.059
  58. Pardo-Freire M, Domingo-Calap P. Phages and Nanotechnology: New Insights against Multidrug-Resistant Bacteria. Biodes Res. 2023;5:0004. doi: 10.34133/bdr.0004
  59. Toyonaga N, Mahadevan L. Structural dynamics of contractile injection systems. Biophys J. 2025;124(1):172- 178. doi: 10.1016/j.bpj.2024.11.019
  60. Mayorga-Ramos A, Carrera-Pacheco SE, Barba-Ostria C, Guamán LP. Bacteriophage-mediated approaches for biofilm control. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2024;14:1428637. doi: 10.3389/fcimb.2024.1428637
  61. Emencheta SC, Onugwu AL, Kalu CF, et al. Bacteriophages as nanocarriers for targeted drug delivery and enhanced therapeutic effects. Mater Adv. 2024;5(3):986-1016. doi: 10.1039/d3ma00817g
  62. Freeman KG, Robotham AC, Parks OB, et al. Virion glycosylation influences mycobacteriophage immune recognition. Cell Host Microbe. 2023;31(7):1216-1231.e6. doi: 10.1016/j.chom.2023.05.028
  63. Szabó TG, Palotai R, Antal P, et al. Critical role of glycosylation in determining the length and structure of T cell epitopes. Immunome Res. 2009;5(1):4. doi: 10.1186/1745-7580-5-4
  64. Kim KP, Cha JD, Jang EH, et al. PEGylation of bacteriophages increases blood circulation time and reduces T-helper type 1 immune response. Microb Biotechnol. 2008;1(3):247-257. doi: 10.1111/j.1751-7915.2008.00028.x
  65. Chitboonthavisuk C, Luo CH, Huss P, et al. Engineering a Dynamic Controllable Infectivity Switch in Bacteriophage T7. ACS Synth Biol. 2022;11(1):286-296. doi: 10.1021/acssynbio.1c00414
  66. Washizaki A, Sakiyama A, Ando H. Phage-specific antibodies: are they a hurdle for the success of phage therapy? Essays Biochem. 2024;68(5):633-644. doi: 10.1042/ebc20240024
  67. Weiss GL, Eisenstein F, Kieninger AK, et al. Structure of a thylakoid-anchored contractile injection system in multicellular cyanobacteria. Nat Microbiol. 2022;7(3):386- 396. doi: 10.1038/s41564-021-01055-y
  68. Kim SG, Giri SS, Jo SJ, et al. Prolongation of Fate of Bacteriophages In Vivo by Polylactic-Co-Glycolic- Acid/Alginate-Composite Encapsulation. Antibiotics. 2022;11(9):1264. doi: 10.3390/antibiotics11091264
  69. Hou X, Zhai L, Fu L, et al. Advances in Engineered Phages for Disease Treatment. Small Methods. 2025;9(5):e2401611. doi: 10.1002/smtd.202401611
  70. Doud MB, Robertson JM, Strathdee SA. Optimizing phage therapy with artificial intelligence: a perspective. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2025;15. doi: 10.3389/fcimb.2025.1611857
  71. Bojar D, Camacho DM, Collins JJJCSHLP. Using Natural Language Processing to Learn the Grammar of Glycans. bioRxiv 2020. doi: 10.1101/2020.01.10.902114
  72. Nikolic N, Anagnostidis V, Tiwari A, et al. Investigating bacteria-phage interaction dynamics using droplet-based technology. bioRxiv 2023. doi: 10.1101/2023.07.14.549014
  73. Dąbrowska K, Abedon ST. Pharmacologically Aware Phage Therapy: Pharmacodynamic and Pharmacokinetic Obstacles to Phage Antibacterial Action in Animal and Human Bodies. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev. 2019;83(4). doi: 10.1128/mmbr.00012-19
  74. Faltus T, Willy C. Phage therapy-fighting bacteria with viruses. Bundesgesundheitsblatt Gesundheitsforschung Gesundheitsschutz. 2025;68(6):581-583. doi: 10.1007/s00103-025-04064-y
  75. Setegne MT, Cabral AT, Tiwari A, et al. Engineering Cell- Specific Protein Delivery Vehicles for Erythroid Lineage Cells. ACS Bio Med Chem Au. 2025;5(2):268-282. doi: 10.1021/acsbiomedchemau.4c00098
  76. Peng H, Borg RE, Dow LP, et al. Controlled phage therapy by photothermal ablation of specific bacterial species using gold nanorods targeted by chimeric phages. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2020;117(4):1951-1961. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1913234117
  77. Tao S, Hu A, Bavel E, et al. Bio-Responsive Hydrogel for Targeted on-Demand Release of a Phage Cocktail for Treatment of Pseudomonas aeruginosa Infection. Adv Funct Mater. 2025;36(2):e09360. doi: 10.1002/adfm.202509360
  78. Wang Y, Zhang X, Feng X, et al. Purification of Photorhabdus Virulence Cassette (PVC) Protein Complexes from Escherichia coli for Artificial Translocation of Heterologous Cargo Proteins. Bio Protoc. 2024;14(7):e4966. doi: 10.21769/BioProtoc.4966
  79. Wu W, Hsiao SC, Carrico ZM, Francis MB. Genome-free viral capsids as multivalent carriers for taxol delivery. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl. 2009;48(50):9493-9497. doi: 10.1002/anie.200902426
  80. Kreitz J, Friedrich MJ, Guru A, et al. Programmable protein delivery with a bacterial contractile injection system. Nature. 2023;616(7956):357-364. doi: 10.1038/s41586-023-05870-7
  81. Kaur S, Kumari A, Kumari Negi A, et al. Nanotechnology Based Approaches in Phage Therapy: Overcoming the Pharmacological Barriers. Front Pharmacol. 2021;12:699054. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2021.699054
  82. Chadha P, Katare OP, Chhibber S. Liposome loaded phage cocktail: Enhanced therapeutic potential in resolving Klebsiella pneumoniae mediated burn wound infections. Burns. 2017;43(7):1532-1543. doi: 10.1016/j.burns.2017.03.029
  83. Abdo GG, Zagho MM, Khalil A. Recent advances in stimuli-responsive drug release and targeting concepts using mesoporous silica nanoparticles. Emerg Mater. 2020;3(3):407-425. doi: 10.1007/s42247-020-00109-x
  84. Geller LT, Barzily-Rokni M, Danino T, et al. Potential role of intratumor bacteria in mediating tumor resistance to the chemotherapeutic drug gemcitabine. Science. 2017;357(6356):1156-1160. doi: 10.1126/science.aah5043
  85. Armstrong H, Bording-Jorgensen M, Dijk S, Wine E. The Complex Interplay between Chronic Inflammation, the Microbiome, and Cancer: Understanding Disease Progression and What We Can Do to Prevent It. Cancers. 2018;10(3):83. doi: 10.3390/cancers10030086
  86. Federici S, Kredo-Russo S, Valdés-Mas R, et al. Targeted suppression of human IBD-associated gut microbiota commensals by phage consortia for treatment of intestinal inflammation. Cell. 2022;185(16):2879-2898.e24. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2022.07.003
  87. Zachs T, Malit JJL, Xu J, et al. Archaeal type six secretion system mediates contact-dependent antagonism. Sci Adv. 2024;10(46):eadp7088. doi: 10.1126/sciadv.adp7088
  88. Liu Z, Gray BD, Barber C, et al. Characterization of TCP-1 probes for molecular imaging of colon cancer. J Control Release. 2016;239:223-230. doi: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2016.08.033
  89. Sales-Dias J, Ferreira A, Lamy M, et al. Development of antibodies against the notch ligand Delta-Like-1 by phage display with activity against breast cancer cells. N Biotechnol. 2021;64:17-26. doi: 10.1016/j.nbt.2021.05.003
  90. Kang K, Kim K, Lee SR, et al. Selection and Characterization of YKL-40-Targeting Monoclonal Antibodies from Human Synthetic Fab Phage Display Libraries. Int J Mol Sci. 2020;21(17):6354. doi: 10.3390/ijms21176354
  91. Sung TY, Huang HL, Cheng CC, et al. EGFL6 promotes colorectal cancer cell growth and mobility and the anti-cancer property of anti-EGFL6 antibody. Cell Biosci. 2021;11(1):53. doi: 10.1186/s13578-021-00561-0
  92. Yu X, Long Y, Chen B, et al. PD-L1/TLR7 dual-targeting nanobody-drug conjugate mediates potent tumor regression via elevating tumor immunogenicity in a host-expressed PD-L1 bias-dependent way. J Immunother Cancer. 2022;10(10):e004590. doi: 10.1136/jitc-2022-004590
Share
Back to top
Microbes & Immunity, Electronic ISSN: 3029-2883 Print ISSN: 3041-0886, Published by AccScience Publishing
We use cookies on our website to ensure you get the best experience.
Read more about our cookies here
Accept