Comparative review of structural health monitoring and innovative materials in classical and modern vernacular architecture: Insights from China and India
Structural health monitoring (SHM) has advanced from traditional load-testing methods to intelligent, sensor-based systems that enable real-time, non-invasive assessment of structures. It plays a crucial role in preserving the structural integrity and cultural heritage of classical and vernacular architecture in China and India. This study reviews SHM systems and load testing methods for pre-stressed concrete and reinforced concrete girder bridges, focusing on their application in Chinese and Indian bridges. Load testing is classified into diagnostic and proof tests, each serving to assess structural behavior under service and ultimate loads. Traditional instrumentation, including strain gauges, linear variable differential transformers, and accelerometers, is compared with advanced non-contact methods such as digital image correlation, acoustic emission, and fiber optic sensors, which are increasingly used in urban and rural bridge maintenance in both countries. These technologies are evaluated for their effectiveness in detecting early signs of deterioration, including stiffness loss, fatigue, corrosion, and scour. The discussion emphasizes the importance of effective sensor deployment, precise data collection, and real-time monitoring in modern engineering practices. Emerging innovations such as video vibration sensing, wireless sensor networks, and artificial intelligence-powered data analysis are examined for their potential to improve diagnostics and facilitate predictive maintenance. The study advocates for hybrid SHM systems that combine global and local monitoring approaches, many of which are now integrated into China’s national intelligent infrastructure initiatives and India’s heritage preservation and smart highway projects. The article demonstrates how SHM can enhance the resilience, functionality, and sustainability of girder bridges under complex loading and environmental conditions.
Abdulkarem, M., Samsudin, K., Rokhani, F. Z., & A Rasid, M. F. (2020). Wireless sensor network for structural health monitoring: A contemporary review of technologies, challenges, and future direction. Structural Health Monitoring, 19(3):693-735. https://doi.org/10.1177/1475921719854528
Abedin, M., y Basalo, F. J. D. C., Kiani, N., Mehrabi, A. B., & Nanni, A. (2022). Bridge load testing and damage evaluation using model updating method. Engineering Structures, 252:113648. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2021.113648
Aguilar, C. V., Jáuregui, D. V., Newtson, C. M., Weldon, B. D., & Cortez, T. M. (2015). Load rating a prestressed concrete double T-beam bridge without plans by field testing. Transportation Research Record, 2522(1):90-99. https://doi.org/10.3141/2522-09
Alipour, M., Washlesky, S. J., & Harris, D. K. (2019). Field deployment and laboratory evaluation of 2D digital image correlation for deflection sensing in complex environments. Journal of Bridge Engineering, 24(4):04019010. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)BE.1943-5592.0001363
Al-Mahaidi, R., Taplin, G., & Giuffre, A. (2000). Load distribution and shear strength evaluation of an old concrete T-beam bridge. Transportation Research Record, 1696(1):52-62.
Anay, R., Cortez, T. M., Jáuregui, D. V., ElBatanouny, M. K., & Ziehl, P. (2016). On-site acoustic-emission monitoring for assessment of a prestressed concrete double-tee-beam bridge without plans. Journal of Performance of Constructed Facilities, 30(4):04015062. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)CF.1943-5509.0000810
Bell, D. A. (2010). China’s new Confucianism: Politics and Everyday life in a Changing Society. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Bertagnoli, G., Antognelli, C., Ciccone, E., & Ferrara, M. (2023). Structural health monitoring of a prestressed concrete girder bridge deck using clinometers. In: AIP Conference Proceedings. Vol. 2928, No. 1. Melville, NY: AIP Publishing.
Betti, R., Sloane, M. J. D., Khazem, D., & Gatti, C. (2016). Monitoring the structural health of the main cables of suspension bridges. Journal of Civil Structural Health Monitoring, 6:355-363. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13349-016-0165-8
Cai, Y. (2011). Chinese Architecture. Vol. 30. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Caicedo, D., Lara-Valencia, L. A., & Brito, J. (2021). Frequency-based methods for the detection of damage in structures: A chronological review. Dyna, 88(218):203-211. https://doi.org/10.7440/res64.2018.03
Campana, S., Fernández Ruiz, M., Anastasi, A., & Muttoni, A. (2013). Analysis of shear-transfer actions on one-way RC members based on measured cracking pattern and failure kinematics. Magazine of Concrete Research, 65(6):386-404. https://doi.org/10.1680/macr.12.00142
Catbas, F. N., Gul, M., & Burkett, J. L. (2007). Damage assessment using flexibility and flexibility-based curvature for structural healthmonitoring. Smart Materials and Structures, 17(1):015024. https://doi.org/10.1088/0964-1726/17/01/015024
Cavagnis, F., Fernández Ruiz, M., & Muttoni, A. (2018). An analysis of the shear-transfer actions in reinforced concrete members without transverse reinforcement based on refined experimental measurements. Structural Concrete, 19(1):49-64. https://doi.org/10.1002/suco.201700145
Chen, Z. W., Xu, Y. L., Xia, Y., Li, Q., & Wong, K. Y. (2011). Fatigue analysis of long-span suspension bridges under multiple loading: Case study. Engineering Structures, 33(12): 3246-3256. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2011.08.027
Colombani, I. A., & Andrawes, B. (2022). Comparison of load rating of reinforced concrete slab bridge using analytical and field-testing approaches. Innovative Infrastructure Solutions, 7(1):79. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41062-021-00677-9
Comisu, C. C., Taranu, N., Boaca, G., & Scutaru, M. C. (2017). Structural health monitoring system of bridges. Procedia Engineering, 199:2054-2059. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2017.09.472
De Vries, R., Lantsoght, E. O. L., Steenbergen, R. D. J. M., Hendriks, M. A., & Naaktgeboren, M. (2025). Structural reliability updating on the basis of proof load testing and monitoring data. Engineering Structures, 330:119863. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2025.119863
Duvnjak, I., Damjanović, D., Bartolac, M., & Skender, A. (2021). Mode shape-based damage detection method (MSDI): Experimental validation. Applied Sciences, 11(10):4589. https://doi.org/10.3390/app11104589
Elbadry, M., Ghali, A., & Megally, S. (2001). Deflection prediction for concrete bridges: Analysis and field measurements on a long-span bridge. Structural Concrete, 2(1):1-14. https://doi.org/10.1680/stco.2.1.1.40860
Elsaid, A. H. & Seracino, R. (2012). Vibration-based damage detection of scour in coastal bridges. Journal of Homeland Security Affairs, 4(2):1-7.
Esherick, J. W. (ed.). (2000). Remaking the Chinese City: Modernity and National Identity, 1900-1950. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Farreras-Alcover, I., Chryssanthopoulos, M. K., & Andersen, J. E. (2017). Data-based models for fatigue reliability of orthotropic steel bridge decks based on temperature, traffic, and strain monitoring. International Journal of Fatigue, 95:104-119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2016.09.019
Fayed, S., Mansour, W., & Farhan, M. H. (2022). Using surveying instruments in monitoring 3D deformations of an RC structure subjected to differential settlement of its footings. Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering, 47(4), 5315-5336. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13369-021-06316-w
Frankowski, P. K., Majzner, P., Mąka, M., Stawicki, T., & Chady, T. (2024). Magnetic non-destructive evaluation of reinforced concrete structures: Methodology, system, and identification results. Applied Sciences, 14(24):11695. https://doi.org/10.3390/app142411695
Fritzen, C. P. (2005). Vibration-based structural health monitoring-concepts and applications. Key Engineering Materials, 293:3-20.
Ghali, A., Elbadry, M., & Megally, S. (2000). Two-year deflections of the confederation bridge. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, 27(6):1139-1149. https://doi.org/10.1139/l00-050
Glisic B., Inaudi D., Vurpillot S., Kronenberg P., Loret S. (1999). Long-term monitoring of a concrete bridge with 100+ fiber optic long-gauge sensors, Non-destructive Evaluation of Bridges and Highways III, SPIE, 3587:50-59. https://doi.org/10.1117/12.339934
Gou, H., Zhao, T., Qin, S., Zheng, X., Pipinato, A., & Bao, Y. (2022). In-situ testing and model updating of a long-span cable-stayed railway bridge with hybrid girders subjected to a running train. Engineering Structures, 253(113823):113823. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2021.113823
Halding, P. S., Schmidt, J. W., Jensen, T. W., & Henriksen, A. (2017). Structural response of full-scale concrete bridges subjected to high load magnitudes. In: The 4th Conference on Smart Monitoring, Assessment and Rehabilitation of Civil Structures.
Hemalatha, K., James, C., Natrayan, L., & Swamynadh, V. (2021). Analysis of RCC T-beam and prestressed concrete box girder bridges superstructure under different span conditions. Materials Today: Proceedings, 37:1507-1516.
Hernandez, E. S., & Myers, J. J. (2018). Strength evaluation of prestressed concrete bridges by dynamic load testing. In: The Ninth International Conference on Bridge Maintenance, Safety and Management (IABMAS 2018). Melbourne, Australia: CRC Press.
Jeon, C. H., Kwon, T. H., Kim, J., Jung, K. S., & Park, K. T. (2024). Quantitative evaluation of reinforced concrete slab bridges using a novel health index and LSTM-based deterioration models. Applied Sciences, 14(22):10530. https://doi.org/10.3390/app142210530
Jia, J., Zhang, L., Ou, J., & Chen, X. (2023). Nondestructive testing and health monitoring techniques for structural effective prestress. Structural Control and Health Monitoring, 2023(1):8940008. https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/8940008
Jiang, S. F., Qiao, Z. H., Li, N. L., Luo, J. B., Shen, S., Wu, M. H., et al. (2019). Structural health monitoring system based on FBG sensing technique for Chinese ancient timber buildings. Sensors, 20(1):110. https://doi.org/10.3390/s20010110
Kaspar, K., Santini-Bell, E., Petrik, M., & Sanayei, M. (2020). Comparison between a linear regression and an artificial neural network model to detect and localize damage in the powder mill bridge. Transportation Research Record, 2674(8):394-404. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361198120920631
Kwon, K., & Frangopol, D. M. (2010). Bridge fatigue reliability assessment using probability density functions of equivalent stress range based on field monitoring data. International Journal of Fatigue, 32(8):1221-1232.
Lantsoght, E. O. (2020). Diagnostic and proof load tests on bridges. Frontiers in Built Environment, 6:586704. https://doi.org/10.3389/fbuil.2020.586704
Lantsoght, E. O. (2024). Assessment of existing concrete bridges by load testing: Barriers to code implementation and proposed solutions. Structure and Infrastructure Engineering, 20(7-8):1002-1014. https://doi.org/10.1080/15732479.2023.2264825
Lantsoght, E. O., Van der Veen, C., De Boer, A., & Hordijk, D. A. (2017). State-of-the-art on load testing of concrete bridges. Engineering Structures, 150:231-241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2017.07.050
Lienhart, W., Ehrhart, M., & Grick, M. (2017). High-frequency total station measurements for the monitoring of bridge vibrations. Journal of Applied Geodesy, 11(1):1-8. https://doi.org/10.1515/jag-2016-0028
Limongelli, M. P. (2019). Damage localization through vibration based S 2 HM: A survey. In: Seismic Structural Health Monitoring: From Theory to Successful Applications. Germany: Springer, p. 217-235.
Liu, K. W., Xu, Q. F., Wang, G., Chen, F. M., Leng, Y. B., Yang, J., et al. (2022). Contemporary Bamboo Architecture in China. Singapore: Springer Singapore Pvt Limited.
Liu, M., Frangopol, D. M., & Kim, S. (2009). Bridge system performance assessment from structural health monitoring: A case study. Journal of Structural Engineering, 135(6):733-742. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)st.1943-541x.0000014
Luo, D., Wang, S., Du, X., Zhao, P., Lu, T., Yang, H., et al. (2021). Health detection techniques for historic structures. Materials Testing, 63(9), 855-864.
Mirdad, M. A. H., & Andrawes, B. (2023). Experimental and analytical approaches for load rating reinforced concrete slab bridge. Advances in Structural Engineering, 26(13): 2447-2464. https://doi.org/10.1177/13694332231188417
Moreno-Gomez, A., Perez-Ramirez, C. A., Dominguez- Gonzalez, A., Valtierra-Rodriguez, M., Chavez-Alegria, O., & Amezquita-Sanchez, J. P. (2018). Sensors used in structural health monitoring. Archives of Computational Methods in Engineering, 25:901-918.
Morris, W., Vico, A., Vazquez, M., & De Sanchez, S. R. (2002). Corrosion of reinforcing steel evaluated by means of concrete resistivity measurements. Corrosion Science, 44(1):81-99. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-938X(01)00033-6
Nonis, C., Niezrecki, C., Yu, T. Y., Ahmed, S., Su, C. F., & Schmidt, T. (2013). Structural health monitoring of bridges using digital image correlation. In: Health Monitoring of Structural and Biological Systems. Vol. 8695, SPIE, p. 51-63.
Olaszek, P., Łagoda, M., & Casas, J. R. (2014). Diagnostic load testing and assessment of existing bridges: Examples of application. Structure and Infrastructure Engineering, 10(6):834-842. https://doi.org/10.1080/15732479.2013.772212
Pan, B., Xie, H., Guo, Z., & Hua, T. (2007). Full-field strain measurement using a two-dimensional Savitzky-Golay digital differentiator in digital image correlation. Optical Engineering, 46(3):033601-033601. https://doi.org/10.1117/1.2714926
Park, G., Farrar, C. R., Di Scalea, F. L., & Coccia, S. (2006). Performance assessment and validation of piezoelectric active-sensors in structural health monitoring. Smart Materials and Structures, 15(6):1673. https://doi.org/10.1088/0964-1726/15/6/020
Robertson, I. N. (2005). Prediction of vertical deflections for a long-span prestressed concrete bridge structure. Engineering Structures, 27(12):1820-1827. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2005.05.013
Rossi, M., & Bournas, D. (2023). Structural health monitoring and management of cultural heritage structures: A state-of-the-art review. Applied Sciences, 13(11):6450. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13116450
Sakano, M., Namiki, H., Yajima, S., Koide, Y., Furuta, H., & Frangopol, D. M. (2006). Monitoring of steel railway floor beams prestressed by steel plates. Journal of Bridge Engineering, 11(6):681-687.
Sakiyama, F. I., Veríssimo, G. S., Lehmann, F., & Garrecht, H. (2023). Quantifying the extent of local damage of a 60-year-old prestressed concrete bridge: A hybrid SHM approach. Structural Health Monitoring, 22(1):496-517.
Shan, D. (2011). Chinese Vernacular Dwellings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Song, Y. Z., Bowen, C. R., Kim, A. H., Nassehi, A., Padget, J., & Gathercole, N. (2014). Virtual visual sensors and their application in structural health monitoring. Structural Health Monitoring, 13(3):251-264. https://doi.org/10.1177/1475921714522841
Song, Y., & Liao, C. (2022). Structural materials, ventilation design and architectural art of traditional buildings in Guangdong, China. Buildings, 12(7):900. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12070900
Taheri, S. (2019). A review on five key sensors for monitoring of concrete structures. Construction and Building Materials, 204:492-509. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.01.172
Taylor, P., Hosteng, T., Wang, X., & Phares, B. (2016). Evaluation and Testing of a Lightweight Fine Aggregate Concrete Bridge Deck in Buchanan County, Iowa. Iowa: National Concrete Pavement Technology Center.
Taylor, S. E., Rankin, B., Cleland, D. J., & Kirkpatrick, J. (2007). Serviceability of bridge deck slabs with arching action. ACI Structural Journal, 104(1):39-48.
Walker, J. F., & Hughes, P. E. (2005). Bridge Scour Monitoring Methods at Three Sites in Wisconsin. Virginia: US Geological Survey.
Wu, Y., Chen, Z., Lin, X., & Tu, X. (2025). A visual analysis and review of chinese qilou architectural heritage based on citespace. Buildings, 15(10):1638. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15101638
Ye, X. W., Ni, Y. Q., Wong, K. Y., & Ko, J. M. (2012). Statistical analysis of stress spectra for fatigue life assessment of steel bridges with structural health monitoring data. Engineering Structures, 45:166-176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2012.06.016
Yeh, W. H. (ed.). (2000). Becoming Chinese: Passages to Modernity and Beyond. Vol. 23. United States: University of California Press.
Zhan, J., Zhang, F., & Siahkouhi, M. (2021). A step-by-step damage identification method based on frequency response function and cross signature assurance criterion. Sensors, 21(4):1029. https://doi.org/10.3390/s21041029