AccScience Publishing / AJWEP / Online First / DOI: 10.36922/AJWEP025380293
Submit to AJWEP
Cite this article
3
Download
92
Views
Journal Browser
Volume | Year
Issue
Search
Forthcoming Issue
Current Issue
View All
News and Announcements
View All
REVIEW ARTICLE

Heavy metal contamination in Hawaiian island soils: Sources, risks, and environmental assessment strategies

Austyn O. Bugado1* ,  Mark W. Oleksak2 ,  Courtney Chang3
Show Less
1 Department of WIYS, Hawaii Academy of Science, Honolulu, Hawaii, United States of America
2 Department of Research and Innovation, STEM Pioneers Group, Inc., Boca Raton, Florida, United States of America
3 Department of WIYS, Hawaii Academy of Science, Honolulu, Hawaii, United States of America
AJWEP, 025380293 https://doi.org/10.36922/AJWEP025380293
Received: 16 September 2025 | Revised: 30 November 2025 | Accepted: 2 December 2025 | Published online: 22 December 2025
© 2025 by the Author(s). This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ )
Download PDF
XML
Cite
Abstract

The Hawaiian Islands, shaped by a legacy of intensive plantation agriculture, continue to face persistent soil contamination with heavy metals, particularly arsenic and lead, which are remnants of historic pesticide and industrial chemical application. Today, these contaminants pose elevated environmental and human health risks, especially in areas repurposed as residential neighborhoods and public parks. This review consolidates current evidence on the primary contamination sources, spatial distribution, and potential health impacts of arsenic and lead in Hawaiian soils. It also evaluates and confirms advanced field and laboratory assessment techniques, namely, decision unit–multi-increment sampling and energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence, which are increasingly employed in Hawai’i for efficient and representative analysis. By synthesizing regulatory guidelines, historical land-use records, and recent case studies, this article emphasizes the necessity of thorough legacy contamination assessments to inform safe land conversion practices. These findings offer valuable insights for future research, remediation strategies, and policy development, both in Hawai‘i and in similar post-agricultural contexts globally.

Keywords
Heavy metals
Arsenic
Lead
Hawai’i
Soil contamination
Decision unit–multi-increment sampling
Energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence
Environmental assessment
Land reuse
Funding
This project was self-funded by the authors.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
References
  1. MacLennan C. Foundations of Sugar’s Power: Early Maui Plantations, 1840-1860. Academia.edu. Available from: https://www.academia.edu/64817609/foundations_of_ sugars_power_early_maui_plantations_1840_1860 [Last accessed on 2025 Aug 03].

 

  1. MacLennan C. The mark of sugar. Hawai’i’s eco-industrial heritage. Hist Soc Res. 2024;29(3):37-62.

 

  1. Kawelo H. Mapping the Story of Hawaiʻi’s Agricultural Occupation. ArcGIS StoryMaps; 2024. Available from: https://storymaps.arcgis.com/ stories/4168f217f69f4056b40314ca8bc86835 [Last accessed on 2025 Nov 30].

 

  1. MacLennan C. Hawai’i turns to sugar: The rise of plantation centers, 1860-80. Hawaii J Hist. 1997;31:97-125.

 

  1. Minatodani D. Chronicling America: Historic Newspapers from Hawaiʻi and the U.S.: Sugar Industry. University of Hawaii at Manoa Hamilton Library Research Guides; 2022. Available from: https://guides. library.manoa.hawaii.edu/c.php?g=105252&p=687131 [Last accessed on 2025 Nov 30].

 

  1. La Croix S, Fishback P. Migration, labor market dynamics, and wage differentials in Hawaii’s Sugar Industry, 1901-1915. In: Advances in Agricultural Economic History. Vol. 1. England: Emerald Publishing Limited; 2000. p. 31-71. doi: 10.1016/S1569-4933(00)01029-0

 

  1. Library of Congress. Hawaii: Life in a Plantation Society. Available from: https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/immigration/japanese/hawaii-life-in-a-plantation-society [Last accessed on 2025 Nov 30].

 

  1. Dusek J, Sanda M, Loo B, Chittaranjan R. Field leaching of pesticides at five test sites in Hawaii: Study description and results. Pest Manag Sci. 2010;66:596-611. doi: 10.1002/ps.1914

 

  1. Cutler WG, Brewer RC, El-Kadi A, et al. Bioaccessible arsenic in soils of former sugar cane plantations, Island of Hawaii. Sci Total Environ. 2013;442:177-188. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.09.081

 

  1. Hawaii Department of Health. Past Use of Chlordane, Dieldrin, and Other Organochlorine Pesticides for Termite Control in Hawai’i: Safe Management Practices; 2011. Available from: https://health.hawaii.gov/heer/ files/2019/10/past-use-of-chlordane-dieldrin-and-other-organochlorine-pesticides-for-termite-control-in-hawaii-safe-management-practices-2018.pdf [Last accessed on 2025 Nov 30].

 

  1. Hue NV. Arsenic Levels, Chemistry and Bioavailability in Hawaii Soils. Presented at: 19th World Congress of Soil Science; 2010. Available from: https://www. researchgate.net/publication/249645075_arsenic_ levels_chemistry_and_bioavailability_in_hawaii_soils [Last accessed on 2025 Nov 30].

 

  1. Hawaii Department of Health. Lead in Soils Fact Sheet; 2017. Available from: https://health.hawaii.gov/heer/ files/2019/10/lead-in-hawaiian-soils-questions-and-answers-2017.pdf [Last accessed on 2025 Nov 30].

 

  1. University of Hawaii-West Oʻahu. History of Labor in Hawai’i; 2019. Available from: https://www.hawaii. edu/uhwo/clear/home/hawaiilaborhistory.html [Last accessed on 2025 Nov 30].

 

  1. Nakama W. Baban: The Passing of the Plantation Generation. The Honolulu Advertiser; 2024. Available from: https://the.honoluluadvertiser.com/article/2004/ may/30/il/il01a.html [Last accessed on 2025 Nov 30].

 

  1. Hawaii Department of Health. Lead-Impacted Soil Response Action for Hakalau Beach Park. Available from: https://health.hawaii.gov/heer/files/2023/06/ hakalaufactsheet20230614.pdf [Last accessed on 2025 Feb 07].

 

  1. Historic Hawaii Foundation. Hakalau Stream Bridge; 2014. Available from: https://historichawaii. org/2014/02/14/hakalau-stream-bridge [Last accessed on 2025 Nov 30].

 

  1. Young PT. Kaiwiki Milling Company. Images of Old Hawaiʻi; 2017. Available from: https:// imagesofoldhawaii.com/kaiwiki-milling-company [Last accessed on 2025 Nov 30].

 

  1. Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources. Land Division Report; 2017. Available from: https://dlnr. hawaii.gov/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/d-6.pdf [Last accessed on 2025 Aug 03].

 

  1. Burn R, Bourns C. National Service Center for Environmental Publications. https://nepis.epa.gov/exe/ zynet.exe/9101w6xe.txt [Last accessed on 2025 Aug 10].

 

  1. Aliyu Anka S. Lead poisoning in Zamfara State Nigeria: Effects on environmental health. In: Poisoning - Prevention, Diagnosis, Treatment and Poison Repurposing. London: IntechOpen; 2024. doi: 10.5772/intechopen.112909

 

  1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Lead Poisoning Investigation in Northern Nigeria; 2024. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/one-health/php/ stories/lead-poisoning.html [Last accessed on 2025 Nov 30].

 

  1. Hong YS, Song KH, Chung JY. Health effects of chronic arsenic exposure. J Prev Med Public Health. 2014;47(5):245-252. doi: 10.3961/jpmph.14.035

 

  1. World Health Organization. Arsenic; 2022. Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ arsenic [Last accessed on 2025 Nov 30].

 

  1. Ortiz-Garcia NY, Ramírez AIC, Juarez K, Brand Galindo J, Briceño G, Calderon Martinez E. Maternal exposure to arsenic and its impact on maternal and fetal health: A review. Cureus. 2023;15(11):e49177. doi: 10.7759/cureus.49177

 

  1. World Health Organization. Lead Poisoning and Health; 2024. Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/ fact-sheets/detail/lead-poisoning-and-health [Last accessed on 2025 Nov 30].

 

  1. US Environmental Protection Agency. Regional Removal Management Levels (RMLs) User’s Guide; 2024. Available from: https://www.epa.gov/risk/regional-removal-management-levels-rmls-users-guide [Last accessed on 2025 Nov 30].

 

  1. Rosen JF. Adverse health effects of lead at low exposure levels: Trends in the management of childhood lead poisoning. Toxicology. 1995;97(1-3):11-17.doi: 10.1016/0300-483x(94)02963-u

 

  1. US Environmental Protection Agency. Regional Screening Levels (RSLs) - Generic Tables; 2024. Available from: https:// www.epa.gov/risk/regional-screening-levels-rsls-generic-tables [Last accessed on 2025 Nov 30].

 

  1. US Environmental Protection Agency. Regional Screening Levels (RSLs) - What’s New; 2024. Available from: https://www.epa.gov/risk/regional-screening-levels-rsls-whats-new [Last accessed on 2025 Nov 30].

 

  1. Interstate Technology and Regulatory Council (ITRC). Incremental Sampling Methodology; 2012. Available from: https://www.itrcweb.org [Last accessed on 2025 Nov 30].

 

  1. Clausen JL, Korte N, Dodson M, Robb J, Rieven S. Relative standard deviation of 10% from multi-increment sampling for arsenic and lead at a military site. Environ Forensics. 2013;14(4):289-298.

 

  1. Hawaii Department of Health. Technical Guidance Manual, Section 4: Multi-Increment Sampling Methods. Hawaii: Hawaii Department of Health; 2016.

 

  1. Interstate Technology and Regulatory Council (ITRC). Incremental Sampling Methodology Update. ISM-2; 2020. Available from: https://www.itrcweb.org [Last accessed on 2025 Nov 30].

 

  1. Kalnicky DJ, Singhvi R. Field portable XRF analysis of environmental samples. J Hazard Mater. 2001;83(1-2):93-122. doi: 10.1016/s0304-3894(00)00330-7

 

  1. Jenkins R, Gould RW, Gedcke D. Quantitative X-ray Spectrometry. 2nd ed. New York City: Marcel Dekker; 1995.

 

  1. Maliki M, Yilmaz F, Taylor MP. Comparison between inductively coupled plasma and X-ray fluorescence performance for Pb analysis in environmental soil samples. Environ Earth Sci. 2017;76:433. doi: 10.1007/s12665-017-6753-z

 

  1. Yilmaz D, Boydaş E. Precision and accuracy of ST-EDXRF performance for As determination comparing with ICP-MS and evaluation of As deviation in soil media. Chemosphere. 2013;93(10):2450-2456. doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.06.086

 

  1. Wilschefski SC, Baxter MR. Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry: Introduction to analytical aspects. Clin Biochem Rev. 2019;40(3):115-133. doi: 10.33176/AACB-19-00024

 

  1. US Environmental Protection Agency. Method 6200: Field Portable X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometry for the Determination of Elemental Concentrations in Soil and Sediment. Washington, DC: US Environmental Protection Agency; 2007.

 

  1. Hawai‘i Department of Health. Technical Guidance Manual for the Implementation of the Hawai‘i HEER TGM; 2021. Available from: https://health.hawaii.gov/ heer/tgm [Last accessed on 2025 Nov 30].

 

  1. Brewer R, Peard J, Heskett M. A critical review of discrete soil sample data reliability: Part 1-field study results. Soil Sediment Contam. 2016;26(1):1-22. doi: 10.1080/15320383.2017.1244171

 

  1. US Environmental Protection Agency. Method 6200: Field Portable X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometry for the Determination of Elemental Concentrations in Soil and Sediment. United States: US Environmental Protection Agency; 2007.

 

  1. US Geological Survey. USGS Reference Material: BHVO-2 Basalt; 2023. Available from: https://crustal. usgs.gov/geochemical_reference_standards [Last accessed on 2025 Nov 30].

 

  1. National Institute of Standards and Technology. Standard Reference Materials: SRM 2710 and SRM 2711; 2023. Available from: https://www.nist.gov/srm [Last accessed on 2025 Nov 30].

 

  1. Donaghy KP, Miletich M, Kennedy R. Legacy heavy metals in agricultural soils of the Pacific Islands. Environ Pollut Rev. 2022;45(2):98-111.

 

  1. Sutherland RA, Tolosa CA. Multi-element analysis of road-deposited sediment in an urban drainage basin, Honolulu, Hawaii. Environ Pollut. 2000;110(3):483-495. doi: 10.1016/S0269-7491(99)00316-5

 

  1. Komárek M, Ettler V, Chrastný V, Mihaljevič M. Lead isotopes in environmental sciences: A review. Environ Int. 2008;34(4):562-577. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2007.10.005

 

  1. Dao L, Morrison L, Zhang H, Zhang C. Influences of traffic on Pb, Cu, and Zn concentrations in roadside soils of an urban park in Dublin, Ireland. Environ Geochem Health. 2013;36(3):333-343. doi: 10.1007/s10653-013-9553-8

 

  1. Cabidoche YM, Achard R, Cattan P, Clermont-Dauphin C, Massat F, Sansoulet J. Long-term pollution by chlordecone of tropical volcanic soils in the French West Indies: A simple leaching model accounts for current residue. Environ Pollut. 2009;157(5):1697-1705. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2008.12.015

 

  1. Ferreira-Baptista L, De Miguel E. Geochemistry and risk assessment of street dust in Luanda, Angola: A tropical urban environment. Atmos Environ. 2005;39(25):4501-4512. doi: 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2005.02.024

 

  1. Aiuppa A, Bellomo S, D’Alessandro W, et al. Major-ion bulk deposition around an active volcano (Mt Etna, Italy). Bull Volcanol. 2003;65(6):400-408. doi: 10.1007/s00445-003-0277-4

 

  1. Olivares RU, Aragon CT. Heavy metal contamination in urban soils of Metro Manila, Philippines: A review. Environ Eng Res. 2016;21(2):125-134. doi: 10.4491/eer.2015.092

 

  1. Gao J, Gong J, Yang J, et al. Spatial distribution and ecological risk assessment of soil heavy metals in a typical volcanic area: Influence of parent materials. Heliyon. 2023;9(1):e12993.doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e12993

 

  1. US Environmental Protection Agency. Soil Sampling; 2015. Available from: https://www.epa.gov/quality/soil-sampling [Last accessed on 2025 Nov 30].

 

  1. US Environmental Protection Agency. Field X-Ray Fluorescence Measurement (107)_AF.R4; 2017. Available from: https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/ files/2016-01/documents/field_xrf_measurement107_ af.r3.pdf [Last accessed on 2025 Nov 30].

 

  1. Dhiman SS, Zhao X, Li J, et al. Metal accumulation by sunflower and the efficacy of its biomass in enzymatic saccharification. PLoS One. 2017;12(4):e0175845. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0175845

 

  1. Padmavathiamma PK, Li LY. Phytoremediation technology: Hyper-accumulation metals in plants. Water Air Soil Pollut. 2007;184:105-126. doi: 10.1007/s11270-007-9401-5

 

  1. Huang SY, Zhuo C, Du XY, Li HS. Remediation of arsenic-contaminated paddy soil by intercropping aquatic vegetables and rice. Int J Phytoremediation. 2021;23(10):1021-1029. doi: 10.1080/15226514.2021.1872485

 

  1. Zhao F, Tang Z, Song J, Huang X, Wang P. Toxic metals and metalloids: Uptake, transport, detoxification, phytoremediation, and crop improvement for safer food. Mol Plant. 2022;15(1):27-44. doi: 10.1016/j.molp.2021.09.016

 

  1. Danh LT, Truong P, Mammucari R, Tran T, Foster N. Vetiver grass: A choice plant for phytoremediation of heavy metals and organic wastes. Int J Phytoremediation. 2009;11(8):664-691. doi: 10.1080/15226510902787302

 

  1. Yepu L, Guobing W, Tao J, Ying Y, Hongyan G. Enhanced sustainable remediation of co-contaminated soil and groundwater with lead and arsenic utilizing the willow-vetiver-permeable reactive barrier system. Sci Total Environ. 2025;977:179343. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2025.179343

 

  1. Adamczyk-Szabela D, Wolf WM. The impact of soil pH on heavy metals uptake and photosynthesis efficiency in Melissa officinalis, Taraxacum officinalis, Ocimum basilicum. Molecules. 2022;27(15):4671. doi: 10.3390/molecules27154671

 

  1. Banerjee S, Jha S, Chakraborty S, et al. Mycorrhiza-assisted phytoremediation of spiked chromium-contaminated soil: Assessing AMF-vetiver symbiosis for Cr accumulation and soil quality enhancement. Environ Res. 2025;283:122143. doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2025.122143

 

  1. Kafil M, Boroomand Nasab S, Moazed H, Bhatnagar A. Phytoremediation potential of vetiver grass irrigated with wastewater for treatment of metal contaminated soil. Int J Phytoremediation. 2019;21(2):92-100. doi: 10.1080/15226514.2018.1474443

 

  1. Wang Y, Liu Y, Zhan W, et al. Stabilization of heavy metal-contaminated soils by biochar: Challenges and recommendations. Sci Total Environ. 2020;729:139060. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139060

 

  1. Beesley L, Moreno-Jimenez E, Gomez-Eyles JL, Harris E, Robinson B, Sizmur T. A review of biochars’ potential role in the remediation, revegetation and restoration of contaminated soils. Environ Pollut. 2011;159(12):3269-3282. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2011.07.023

 

  1. Liu T, Lawluvy Y, Shi Y, et al. Adsorption of cadmium and lead from aqueous solution using modified biochar: A review. J Environ Chem Eng. 2022;10(1):106502. doi: 10.1016/j.jece.2021.106502

 

  1. US Environmental Protection Agency. Recent Developments for in Situ Treatment of Metal Contaminated Soils; 1997. Available from: https://www. epa.gov/sites/default/files/2015-08/documents/recent_ dev_metals_542-r-97-004.pdf [Last accessed on 2025 Nov 30].

 

  1. Hettiarachchi GM, Pierzynski GM. In situ stabilization of soil lead using phosphorus and manganese oxide: Influence of plant growth. J Environ Qual. 2002;31(2):564-572.

 

  1. Sun Z, Zhao M, Chen L, Gong Z, Hu J, Ma D. Electrokinetic remediation for heavy metals in soil: Limitations, solutions, and prospection. Sci Total Environ. 2023;903:165970. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.165970

 

  1. He F, Liu F, Li S, et al. A critical review of soil pollution sources and advances in the remediation of arsenic-contaminated soil. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2025;302:118504. doi: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2025.118504

 

  1. Hawai‘i Department of Health. Technical Guidance Manual for the Implementation of the Hawai‘i State Contingency Plan. Honolulu: Hawai‘i Department of Health; 2017.

 

  1. State of Hawaiʻi Office of Environmental Quality Control. Hawaiʻi Environmental Policy Act Citizen’s Guide; 2014. Available from: https://files.hawaii.gov/dbedt/erp/oeqc_ guidance/2014-guide-hepa-citizens-guide.pdf [Last accessed on 2025 Nov 30].
Share
Back to top
Asian Journal of Water, Environment and Pollution, Electronic ISSN: 1875-8568 Print ISSN: 0972-9860, Published by AccScience Publishing
We use cookies on our website to ensure you get the best experience.
Read more about our cookies here
Accept