AccScience Publishing / MSAM / Online First / DOI: 10.36922/MSAM026200042
Submit to MSAM
Cite this article
8
Download
99
Views
Related Info Links
Google Scholar
More by Authors Links
Ana P. Piedade
Journal Browser
Volume | Year
Issue
Search
Forthcoming Issue
Current Issue
View All
News and Announcements
View All
ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

Hybrid multimaterial composite processed in a monomaterial additive manufacturing equipment for biomedical applications

Joana F. Henriques1 ,  Ana M. Amaro1 ,  Ana P. Piedade1*
Show Less
1 University of Coimbra, CEMMPRE, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Coimra, Portugal
MSAM, 026200042 https://doi.org/10.36922/MSAM026200042
Received: 11 May 2026 | Revised: 3 June 2026 | Accepted: 11 June 2026 | Published online: 24 July 2026
© 2026 by the Author(s). This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ )
Download PDF
XML
Cite
Abstract

Atherosclerosis is characterized by the buildup of lipids and other substances within blood vessels, leading to plaque formation. In conjunction with thrombosis, atherosclerosis constitutes a primary cause of myocardial infarction and sudden death. Medical imaging is used to plan cardiovascular interventions to solve this problem; however, it cannot provide an exact spatial relationship among tissues. Therefore, the development of materials that can provide patient-specific physical models and replicate the mechanical properties of the relevant tissues would significantly enhance medical training and planning. Consequently, this work explores the use of hydroxyapatite-reinforced polymeric resins to mimic atherosclerotic plaques. Composites were prepared by adding hydroxyapatite at 0%, 0.1%, 0.5%, and 1% (wt/wt) to the resin, then processed via stereolithography to mimic the early stages of atherosclerosis. Post-processed composites were thoroughly characterized, and the results confirm that ceramic powder can be successfully incorporated into the polymeric matrix. The reinforcement percentages are small, implying that mechanical and surface properties, such as wettability and surface energy, do not differ significantly. However, the results are within the range of mechanical properties of atherosclerotic vessels, and the composite materials exhibit surface behavior favorable for producing three-dimensional-printed physical models of diseased vascular.

Graphical abstract
Keywords
Hybrid polymer–ceramic composites
Additive manufacturing
Stereolithography
Surgical biomodels
Atherosclerosis
Funding
This research was partially funded by national funds through FCT – Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, under the project UID/00285/2025 (https://doi.org/10.54499/UID/00285/2025). Joana F. Henriques is thankful for the financial support from Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT), Portugal, through the PhD grant reference 2023.00752.BD (https://doi.org/10.54499/2023.00752.BD).
Conflict of interest
Ana Piedade serves as an Editorial Board Member of this journal, but was not in any way involved in the editorial and peer-review process conducted for this paper, directly or indirectly. The authors declare they have no competing interests.
References
  1. Nedkoff L, Briffa T, Zemedikun D, Herrington S, Wright FL. Global Trends in Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease. Clin Ther. 2023;45(11):1087–1091. doi: 10.1016/j.clinthera.2023.09.020
  2. Li Y, Cao G, Jing W, Liu J, Liu M. Global trends and regional differences in incidence and mortality of cardiovascular disease, 1990−2019: findings from 2019 global burden of disease study. Eur J Prev Cardiol. 2023;30(3):276–286. doi: 10.1093/eurjpc/zwac285
  3. Akyildiz AC, Speelman L, Gijsen FJH. Mechanical properties of human atherosclerotic intima tissue. J Biomech. 2014;47(4):773–783. doi: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2014.01.019
  4. Stary HC. Natural History and Histological Classification of Atherosclerotic Lesions. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2000;20(5):1177–1178. doi: 10.1161/01.ATV.20.5.1177
  5. Liu Y, Luo X, Jia H, Yu B. The Effect of Blood Pressure Variability on Coronary Atherosclerosis Plaques. Front Cardiovasc Med. 2022;9:803810. doi: 10.3389/fcvm.2022.803810
  6. Cunnane EM, Mulvihill JJE, Barrett HE Hennessy MM, Kavanagh EG, Walsh MT. Mechanical properties and composition of carotid and femoral atherosclerotic plaques: A comparative study. J Biomech. 2016;49(15):3697–3704. doi: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2016.09.036
  7. Kobielarz M, Kozuń M, Gąsior-Głogowska M, Chwiłkowska A. Mechanical and structural properties of different types of human aortic atherosclerotic plaques. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater. 2020;109:103837. doi: 10.1016/j.jmbbm.2020.103837
  8. Valverde I, Gomez G, Coserria JF, et al. 3D printed models for planning endovascular stenting in transverse aortic arch hypoplasia. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv 2015;85(6):1006–1012. doi: 10.1002/ccd.25810
  9. Yang H, Zhang X, Wang S, Wang Y, Xiong R, Huang C. Creating Biomimetic Bouligand Architectures for Biomedical and Healthcare Applications. Interd Mater. 2025;4(4):539-567. doi: 10.1002/idm2.12260
  10. Cabrera MS, Sanders B, Goor OJGM, Driessen-Mol A, Oomens CWJ, Baaijens FPT. Computationally Designed 3D Printed Self-Expandable Polymer Stents with Biodegradation Capacity for Minimally Invasive Heart Valve Implantation: A Proof-of-Concept Study. 3D Print Addit Manuf. 2017;4(1):19–29. doi: 10.1089/3dp.2016.0052
  11. Henriques J, Amaro AM, Piedade AP. Understanding Atherosclerosis Pathophysiology: Can Additive Manufacturing Be Helpful?. Polymers. 2023;15(3):480. doi: 10.3390/polym15030480
  12. Henriques J, Amaro AM, Piedade AP. Biomimicking Atherosclerotic Vessels: A Relevant and (Yet) Sub-Explored Topic. Biomimetics. 2024;9(3):135. doi: 10.3390/biomimetics9030135
  13. Hangge P, Pershad Y, Witting AA, Albadawi H, Oklu R. Three-dimensional (3D) printing and its applications for aortic diseases. Cardiovasc Diagn Ther. 2018;8(S1):S19–S25. doi: 10.21037/cdt.2017.10.02
  14. Adugna YM, Akessa AD, Lemu HG. Overview study on challenges of additive manufacturing for a healthcare application. IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng. 2021;1201(1):012041. doi: 10.1088/1757-899X/1201/1/012041
  15. International Organization for Standardization. Additive Manufacturing — General Principles — Fundamentals and Vocabulary. ISO 52900:2021. 2nd ed. International Organization for Standardization; 2021. Accessed April 29, 2026. https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso-astm:52900:ed-2:v1:en
  16. Jędrzejczak K, Antonowicz A, Butruk-Raszeja B, et al. Three-Dimensionally Printed Elastic Cardiovascular Phantoms for Carotid Angioplasty Training and Personalized Healthcare. J Clin Med. 2024;13(17):5115. doi: 10.3390/jcm13175115
  17. Carvalho V, Rodrigues N, Ribeiro R, et al. Hemodynamic study in 3D printed stenotic coronary artery models: experimental validation and transient simulation. Comput Methods Biomech Biomed Engin. 2021;24(6):623–636. doi: 10.1080/10255842.2020.1842377
  18. Carvalho V, Rodrigues N, Ribeiro R, Costa PF, Lima RA, Teixeira SFCF. 3D Printed Biomodels for Flow Visualization in Stenotic Vessels: An Experimental and Numerical Study. Micromachines. 2020;11(6):549. doi: 10.3390/mi11060549
  19. Song Z, Zhu P, Yang L, Liu Z, Li H, Zhu W. Study on the radial sectional velocity distribution and wall shear stress associated with carotid artery stenosis. Phys Fluid. 2022;34(5):051904. doi: 10.1063/5.0085796
  20. Jiang R, Pu J, Wang Y, et al. Tailored wrinkles for tunable sensing performance by stereolithography. Interd Mat. 2024;3(3):414-424. doi: 10.1002/idm2.12161
  21. Afridi A, Al Rashid A, Koç M. Recent advances in the development of stereolithography-based additive manufacturing processes: A review of applications and challenges. Bioprinting. 2024;43:e00360. doi: 10.1016/j.bprint.2024.e00360
  22. Susanto B, Putro AJN, Ristyawan NR, et al. Enhanced Mechanical Properties of the Additively Manufactured Modified Hybrid Stereolithography (SLA)–Glass Powder. J Compos Sci. 2025;9(5):205. doi: 10.3390/jcs9050205
  23. Müller M, Urban J, Svobodová J, Mishra RK. Modification of the Mechanical Properties of Photosensitive Resin by Using Biobased Fillers During Stereolithography (SLA) 3D Printing. Materials. 2025;18(12):2699. doi: 10.3390/ma18122699
  24. He Z, Luo J, Lv M, et al. Characteristics and evaluation of atherosclerotic plaques: an overview of state-of-the-art techniques. Front Neurol. 2023;14:1159288. doi: 10.3389/fneur.2023.1159288
  25. ASTM International. Standard Test Method for Rubber Property—Durometer Hardness. ASTM D2240-15(2021). ASTM International; 2021. Accessed April 29, 2026. https://store.astm.org/d2240-15r21.html
  26. Young T. An essay on the cohesion of fluids. Philos Trans R Soc Lond. 1805;95:65–87. doi: 10.1098/rstl.1805.0005
  27. Deng Y, Peng C, Dai M, et al. Recent development of super-wettable materials and their applications in oil-water separation. J Clean Prod. 2020;266:121624. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.121624
  28. Jie-Rong C, Wakida T. Studies on the surface free energy and surface structure of PTFE film treated with low temperature plasma. J Appl Polym Sci. 1997;63(13):1733–1739. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1097-4628(19970328)63:13<1733::AID-APP4>3.0.CO;2-H
  29. Weng Z, Zhou Y, Lin W, Senthil T, Wu L. Structure-property relationship of nano enhanced stereolithography resin for desktop SLA 3D printer. Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf. 2016;88:234–242. doi: 10.1016/j.compositesa.2016.05.035
  30. Jašek V, Melčová V, Figalla S, Fučík J, Menčík P, Přikryl R. Study of the Thermomechanical Properties of Photocured Resins Based on Curable Monomers from PLA and PHB for SLA 3D Printing. ACS Appl Polym Mater. 2023;5(12):9909–9917. doi: 10.1021/acsapm.3c01730
  31. Coates J. Interpretation of Infrared Spectra, A Practical Approach. In: R.A. Meyers, M.L. McKelvy (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Analytical Chemistry. John Wiley & Sons; 2006. doi: 10.1002/9780470027318.a5606
  32. Gheisari H, Karamian E, Abdellahi M. A novel hydroxyapatite –Hardystonite nanocomposite ceramic. Ceram Int. 2015;41(4):5967–5975. doi: 10.1016/j.ceramint.2015.01.033
  33. Prasanna APS, Venkatasubbu GD. Sustained release of amoxicillin from hydroxyapatite nanocomposite for bone infections. Prog Biomater. 2018;7(4):289–296. doi: 10.1007/s40204-018-0103-4
  34. Wang X, Chen H, Chen C, Li H. Chemical degradation of thermoplastic polyurethane for recycling polyether polyol. Fibers Polym. 2011;12(7):857–863. doi: 10.1007/s12221-011-0857-y
  35. Zhou ZM, Wang K, Lin K, Wang YH, Li JZ. Influence of Characteristics of Thermoplastic Polyurethane on Graphene-Thermoplastic Polyurethane Composite Film. Micromachines. 2021;12(2):129. doi: 10.3390/mi12020129
  36. Prasad MB, Sahu SK. Tensile and flexural properties of thermoplastic polyurethane reinforced with nanodiamond using experimental and FEM method. J Mechl Sci Technol. 2025;39(11):6431–6438. doi: 10.1007/s12206-025-2303-x
  37. Hernandez-Sanchez D, Comtois-Bona M, Muñoz M, Ruel M, Suuronen EJ, Alarcon EI. Manufacturing and validation of small-diameter vascular grafts: A mini review. IScience. 2024;27(6):109845. doi: 10.1016/j.isci.2024.109845
  38. Wang Y, Ding Y, Yu K, Dong G. Innovative polymer‐based composite materials in additive manufacturing: A review of methods, materials, and applications. Polym Compos. 2024;45(17):15389–15420. doi: 10.1002/pc.28854
  39. Park G, Cho NK, Lee Y, Kim CS. Comprehensive parametric analyses on the mechanical performance of 3D printed continuous carbon fiber reinforced plastic. Compos Struct. 2024;329:117804. doi: 10.1016/j.compstruct.2023.117804
  40. Pizzorni M, Benvenuto M, Lertora E, Mandolfino C. Adhesive bonding of CFRP with a 3D-printed short-fiber composite: An experimental study on the effects of geometry and adhesive system on joint performance. Compos B Eng. 2025;294:112155. doi: 10.1016/j.compositesb.2025.112155
  41. Spoerk M, Savandaiah C, Arbeiter F, Traxler G, Cardon L, Holzer C, Sapkota J. Anisotropic properties of oriented short carbon fibre filled polypropylene parts fabricated by extrusion-based additive manufacturing. Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf. 2018;113:95–104. doi: 10.1016/j.compositesa.2018.06.018
  42. Lakes RS. Composites Biomaterials. In: Joon B. Park, Joseph D. Bronzino. Biomaterials. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 2002:95-110. doi: 10.1201/9781420040036-6
  43. Henriques JF, Gonçalves L, Amaro AM, Piedade AP. 3D printed polymers that mimic the mechanical properties of atherosclerotic blood vessels for training models: the advantageous degradation induced by UV radiation and hydrolysis. 3D Print Med. 2025;11(1):34. doi: 10.1186/s41205-025-00288-5
  44. Romero-Sabat G, Granda LA, Medel S. Synthesis of UV-curable polyurethane-acrylate hybrids with tuneable hardness and viscoelastic properties on-demand. Mater Adv. 2022;3(12):5118–5130. doi: 10.1039/D2MA00228K
  45. Shan W, Liu P, Bui TQ, Duan H. Shape memory polymers structure with different printing direction: Effect of fracture toughness. Theor Appl Fract Mech. 2023;127:104002. doi: 10.1016/j.tafmec.2023.104002
  46. Smoleń J, Olesik P, Nowacki B, et al. The influence of UV radiation on the properties of GFRP laminates in underwater conditions. Sci Rep. 2024;14(1):7446. doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-57999-8
  47. Chatzistergos PE, Allan D, Chockalingam N, Naemi R. Shore hardness is a more representative measurement of bulk tissue biomechanics than of skin biomechanics. Med Eng Phys. 2022;105(1):103816. doi: 10.1016/j.medengphy.2022.103816
  48. Salewski C, Spintzyk S, von Steuben T, et al. ECMO implantation training: Needle penetration in 3D printable materials and porcine aorta. Perfusion. 2020;36(8):798–802. doi: 10.1177/0267659120967194
  49. Du Q, Zhou P, Pan Y, et al. Influence of hydrophobicity and roughness on the wetting and flow resistance of water droplets on solid surface: A many-body dissipative particle dynamics study. Chem Eng Sci. 2022;249:117327. doi: 10.1016/j.ces.2021.117327
  50. Li Y, Zhang Z, Ji Y, Wang L, Li D. Influence of surface roughness on the fluid flow in microchannel. J Phys Conf Ser. 2024;2740(1):012059. doi: 10.1088/1742-6596/2740/1/012059
  51. Phan THT, Kim SJ, Super-hydrophobic microfluidic channels fabricated via xurography-based polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) micromolding. Chem Eng Sci. 2022;258:117768. doi: 10.1016/j.ces.2022.117768
  52. Vogler EA. Structure and reactivity of water at biomaterial surfaces. Adv Colloid Interface Sci. 1998;74(1-3):69–117. doi: 10.1016/S0001-8686(97)00040-7
  53. Hamad QA, Al-Hasani FJ, Faheed NK. Comparative Study of Biotin and Hydroxyapatite on Biological Properties of Composite Coating. Int J Biomater. 2022;2022:1–11. doi: 10.1155/2022/8802111
  54. Zeng Q, Wang B, Guo Z. Recent advances in microfluidics by tuning wetting behaviors. Mater Today Phys. 2024;40:101324. doi: 10.1016/j.mtphys.2023.101324
  55. Akkas T, Citak C, Sirkecioglu A, Güner FS. Which is more effective for protein adsorption: surface roughness, surface wettability or swelling? Case study of polyurethane films prepared from castor oil and poly(ethylene glycol). Polym Int. 2013;62(8):1202–1209. doi: 10.1002/pi.4408
  56. Zhu J, Wang M, Zhang H, et al. Effects of Hydrophilicity, Adhesion Work, and Fluid Flow on Biofilm Formation of PDMS in Microfluidic Systems. ACS Appl Bio Mater. 2020;3(12):8386–8394. doi: 10.1021/acsabm.0c00660
  57. Pavlin-Premrl D, Boopathy SR, Nemes A, et al. Computational Fluid Dynamics in Intracranial Atherosclerosis - Lessons from Cardiology: A Review of CFD in Intracranial Atherosclerosis. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis. 2021;30(10):106009. doi: 10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2021.106009
  58. Zimnyakov D, Alonova M, Ushakova E, Ushakova O, Isaeva A, Isaeva E. Dynamic Light Scattering by Foamed Polymers during Preparation of Scaffold Prototypes: Events Statistics Analysis versus Evaluation of Correlation Time in Data Interpretation. Photonics. 2021;8(12):549. doi: 10.3390/photonics8120549
  59. Wickramasinghe S, Do T, Tran P. FDM-Based 3D Printing of Polymer and Associated Composite: A Review on Mechanical Properties, Defects and Treatments. Polymers. 2020;12(7):1529. doi: 10.3390/polym12071529
Next article in this issue
Share
Back to top
Materials Science in Additive Manufacturing, Electronic ISSN: 2810-9635 Published by AccScience Publishing
We use cookies on our website to ensure you get the best experience.
Read more about our cookies here
Accept