AccScience Publishing / IJB / Volume 5 / Issue 1 / DOI: 10.18063/ijb.v5i1.153
Cite this article
17
Download
589
Views
Journal Browser
Volume | Year
Issue
Search
News and Announcements
View All
PERSPECTIVE ARTICLE

Biofabrication offers future hope for tackling various obstacles and challenges in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine: A Perspective

Tanveer Ahmad Mir1,2,3 Shintaroh Iwanaga1 Taketoshi Kurooka1 Hideki Toda1 Shinji Sakai4 Makoto Nakamura1,2*
Show Less
1 Graduate School of Science and Engineering for Research (Engineering), University of Toyama, Toyama 930-8555, Japan
2 Toyama Nanotechnology Manufacturing Cluster, Toyama, Japan
3 Laboratory of Biosensors, BioMEMS and Bionanotechnology, Alfaisal University Riyadh 11533, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
4 Graduate School of Engineering Science, Osaka University, 1-3, Machikaneyama-Cho, Toyonaka City, Osaka 560-8531, Japan
Published: 31 December 2018
© 2018 by the Author(s). This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ )
Abstract

Biofabrication is an emerging multidisciplinary field that makes a revolutionary impact on the researches on life science, biomedical engineering, and both basic and clinical medicine, has progressed tremendously over the past few years. Recently, there has been a big boom in three-dimensional (3D) printing or additive manufacturing (AM) research worldwide, and there is a significant increase not only in the number of researchers turning their attention to AM but also publications demonstrating the potential applications of 3D printing techniques in multiple fields. Biofabrication and bioprinting hold great promise for the innovation of engineering-based organ replacing medicine. In this mini review, various challenges in the field of tissue engineering are focused from the point of view of the biofabrication - strategies to bridge the gap between organ shortage and mission of medical innovation research seek to achieve organ-specific treatments or regenerative therapies. Four major challenges are discussed including (i) challenge of producing organs by AM, (ii) digitalization of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, (iii) rapid production of organs beyond the biological natural course, and (iv) extracorporeal organ engineering.

Keywords
Biofabrication
bioprinting
tissue engineering
regenerative medicine
References

1. Robert J M, Christopher M C., 2016, Pathophysiology and clinical evaluation of acute heart failure. Nat Rev Cardiol, 13(1): 28–35. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrcardio.2015.134. 
2. Wouters O J, O’Donoghue D J, Ritchie J, et al., 2015, Early chronic kidney disease: Diagnosis, management and models of care. Nat Rev Nephrol, 11(8): 491–502. https://doi. org/10.1038/nrneph.2015.85. 
3. Shiv K S, Ashok C., 2016, Acute–on–chronic liver failure: Terminology, mechanisms and management. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol, 13(3): 131–149. https://doi. org/10.1038/nrgastro.2015.219. 
4. Pfeifer R, Teuben M, Andruszkow H, et al. 2016, Mortality patterns in patients with multiple trauma: A systematic review of autopsy studies. PLoS One, 11(2): e0148844. https://doi. org/10.1371/journal.pone.0148844. 
5. Lelubre C, Vincent J L., 2018, Mechanisms and treatment of organ failure in sepsis. Nat Rev Nephrol, 14(7): 417–427. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41581-018-0005-7. 
6. Gyöngyösi M, Haller P M, Blake D J, et al., 2018, Meta– analysis of cell therapy studies in heart failure and acute myocardial infarction. Circ Res, 123(2): 301–308. https://doi. org/10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.117.311302. 
7. Katrina, R., 2016, KMO inhibitor for multi–organ failure in experimental acute pancreatitis. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol, 13(2): 61. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrgastro.2016.6. 
8. Kumaran S, Vincenzo V, Maria L L M, et al., 2014, Current progress in public health models addressing the critical organ shortage. Int J Surg, 12: 1363–1368. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. ijsu.2014.11.011. 
9. Shruti G, Jason T, Marie B., 2017, Overview of lung transplantation, heart–lung transplantation, liver–lung transplantation, and combined hematopoietic stem cell transplantation and lung transplantation. Clin Chest Med, 38(4): 623–640. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ccm.2017.07.004. 
10. Wil L S, Jacob J S, Paul S M, et al., 2017, The organ transplant imperative. Mayo Clin Proc, 92(6): 940–946. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.mayocp.2017.03.005. 
11. Abouna G M., 2008, Organ shortage crisis: Problems and possible solutions. Transplant Proc, 40(1): 34–38. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.transproceed.2007.11.067. 
12. Seetapun D, Ross J J., 2017, Eliminating the organ transplant waiting list: The future with perfusion decellularized organs. Surgery, 161(6): 1474–1478. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. surg.2016.09.041. 
13. Douville F, Godin G, Vezina–Im LA., 2014, Organ and tissue donation in clinical settings: A systematic review of the impact of interventions aimed at health professionals. Transplant Res, 3(1): 8. https://doi.org/10.1186/2047-1440-3-8. 
14. Langer R, Vacanti J P., 1993, Tissue engineering. Science, 260(5110): 920–926. https://doi.org/10.1126/ science.8493529. 
15. Atala A, Lanza R P., 2001, Preface. In: Atala A, Lanza R P, editors. Methods of Tissue Engineering. San Diego: Academic Press. 
16. Guangdong Z, Haiyue J, Zongqi Y, et al., 2018, In vitro regeneration of patient–specific ear–shaped cartilage and its first clinical application for auricular reconstruction. E-Biomed, 28: 287–302. 
17. Atala A, Bauer S B, Soker S, et al., 2006, Tissue–engineered autologous bladders for patients needing cystoplasty. Lancet, 367: 1241–1246. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140- 6736(06)68438-9. 
18. Fulco I, Miot S, Haug M D, et al., 2014, Engineered autologous cartilage tissue for nasal reconstruction after tumour resection: An observational first–in–human trial. Lancet, 384: 337–346. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140- 6736(14)60544-4. 
19. Muhart M, McFalls S, Kirsner R, et al., 1997, Bioengineered skin. Lancet, 350: 1142. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140- 6736(05)63788-9. 
20. Olausson M, Patil P B, Kuna V K, et al., 2012, Transplantation of an allogeneic vein bioengineered with autologous stem cells: A proof–of–concept study. Lancet, 380: 230–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60633-3. 
21. Mironov V, Trusk T, Kasyanov V, et al., 2009, Biofabrication: A 21st century manufacturing paradigm. Biofabrication, 1(2): 22001. https://doi.org/10.1088/1758-5082/1/2/022001. 
22. Guillemot F, Mironov V, Nakamura M., 2010, Bioprinting is coming of age: Report from the International conference on bioprinting and biofabrication in Bordeaux (3B’09). Biofabrication, 2: 10201–10207. https://doi. org/10.1088/1758-5082/2/1/010201. 
23. Groll J, Boland T, Blunk T, et al., 2016, Biofabrication: Reappraising the definition of an evolving field. Biofabrication, 8(1): 13001. https://doi.org/10.1088/1758- 5090/aaec52. 
24. Pati F, Ha D H, Jang J, et al., 2015, Biomimetic 3D tissue printing for soft tissue regeneration. Biomaterials, 62: 164–175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2015.05.043. 
25. Lind JU, Busbee T A, Valentine A D, et al., 2017, Instrumented cardiac microphysiological devices via multimaterial three– dimensional printing. Nat Mater, 16(3): 303–308. https://doi. org/10.1038/nmat4782. 
26. NIH National Center of Advancing Translational Sciences, Meet Chip. Available from: https://www.ncats.nih.gov/ tissuechip/chip. 
27. Zimmermann W H, Melnychenko I, Wasmeier G, et al., 2006, Engineered heart tissue grafts improve systolic and diastolic function in infarcted rat hearts. Nat Med, 12: 452–458. https:// doi.org/10.1038/nm1394. 
28. Yanez M, Rincon J, Dones A, et al., 2014, In vivo assessment of printed microvasculature in a bilayer skin graft to treat full–thickness wounds. Tissue Eng Part A, 21: 224–233. https://doi.org/10.1089/ten.tea.2013.0561. 
29. Homan K A, Kolesky D B, Skylar–Scott M A, et al., 2016, Bioprinting of 3D convoluted renal proximal tubules on perfusable chips. Sci Rep, 6: 34845. https://doi.org/10.1038/ srep34845. 
30. Pourchet L J, Thepot A, Albouy M, et al., 2017, Human skin 3D bioprinting using scaffold–free approach. Adv Healthc Mater, 6: 1601101. https://doi.org/10.1002/adhm.201601101. 
31. Zhang Y S, Arneri A, Bersini S, et al., 2016, Bioprinting 3D microfibrous scaffolds for engineering endothelialized myocardium and heart–on–a–chip. Biomaterials, 110: 45–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2016.09.003. 
32. Ma X, Qu X, Zhu W, et al., 2016, Deterministically patterned biomimetic human iPSC–derived hepatic model via rapid 3D bioprinting. Proc Nat Acad Sci, 113: 2206–2211. https://doi. org/10.1073/pnas.1524510113. 
33. Seol Y J, Park J Y, Jeong W, et al., 2015, Development of hybrid scaffolds using ceramic and hydrogel for articular cartilage tissue regeneration. J Biomed Mater Res Part A, 103: 1404–1413. https://doi.org/10.1002/jbm.a.35276. 
34. Lee J S, Kim B S, Seo D, et al., 2017, Three–dimensional cell printing of large–volume tissues: Application to ear regeneration. Tissue Eng Part C, 23: 136–145. https://doi. org/10.1089/ten.tec.2016.0362. 
35. Liu L, Wang X., 2015, Creation of a vascular system for complex organ manufacturing. Int J Bioprint, 1: 77–86. 
36. Lokmic Z, Mitchell G M, 2008, Engineering the microcirculation. Tissue Eng Part B, 14(1): 87–103. https:// doi.org/10.1089/teb.2007.0299. 
37. Liu F, Liu C, Chen Q H, et al., 2018, Progress in organ 3D bioprinting. Int J Bioprint, 4(1): 128. https://doi.org/10.18063/ ijb.v4i1.128. 
38. Khademhosseini A, Langer R, Borenstein J, et al., 2006, Microscale technologies for tissue engineering and biology. Proc Nat Acad Sci, 103: 2480–2487. https://doi.org/10.1073/ pnas.0507681102. 
39. Zhuang P, Sun A X, An J, et al., 2018, 3D neural tissue models: From spheroids to bioprinting. Biomaterials, 154: 113–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2017.10.002. 
40. Arai K, Yoshida T, Okabe M, et al., 2017, Fabrication of 3D culture platform with sandwich architecture for preserving liver–specific functions of hepatocytes using 3D bioprinter. J Biomed Mater Res Part A, 105(6): 1583–1592. https://doi. org/10.1002/jbm.a.35905. 
41. Duan B, Hockaday L A, Kang K H, et al., 2013, 3D Bioprinting of heterogeneous aortic valve conduits with alginate/gelatin hydrogels. J Biomed Mater Res Part A, 101(5): 1255–1264. https://doi.org/10.1002/jbm.a.34420. 
42. O’Brien C M, Holmes B, Faucett S, et al., 2015, Three– dimensional printing of nanomaterial scaffolds for complex tissue regeneration. Tissue Eng Part B, 21: 103. https://doi. org/10.1089/ten.teb.2014.0168. 
43. Pati F, Jang J, Ha D H, et al., 2014, Printing three–dimensional tissue analogues with decellularized extracellular matrix bioink. Nat Comm, 5: 3935. https://doi.org/10.1038/ ncomms4935. 
44. Murphy S V, Atala A., 2014, 3D bioprinting of tissues and organs. Nat Biotechnol, 32: 773–785. https://doi.org/10.1038/ nbt.2958. 
45. Nakamura M, Mir T A, Arai K, et al., 2015, Bioprinting with pre–cultured cellular constructs to–wards tissue engineering of hierarchical tissues. Int J Bioprint, 1(1): 39–48. 
46. Pradhan S, Hassani I, Clary J M, et al., 2016, Polymeric biomaterials for in vitro cancer tissue engineering and drug testing applications. Tissue Eng Part B, 22: 470–484. https:// doi.org/10.1089/ten.teb.2015.0567. 
47. Arai K, Tsukamoto Y, Yoshida H, et al., 2016, The development of cell adhesive hydrogel for 3D printing. Int J Bioprint, 2(2): 153–162. https://doi.org/10.18063/IJB.2016.02.002. 
48. Lee V K, Kim D Y, Ngo H, et al., 2014, Creating perfused functional vascular channels using 3D bio–printing technology. Biomaterials, 35: 8092–8102. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2014.05.083. 
49. Kuo K C, Lin R Z, Tien H W, et al., 2015, Bioengineering vascularized tissue constructs using an injectable cell–laden enzymatically cross linked collagen hydrogel derived from dermal extracellular matrix. Acta Biomater, 27: 151–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2015.09.002. 
50. Xian X, Mary C F, Xinqiao J., 2014, Three–dimensional in vitro tumor models for cancer research and drug evaluation. Biotechnol Adv, 32: 1256–1268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. biotechadv.2014.07.009. 
51. Sundaramurthi D, Rauf S, Hauser C, 2016, 3D bioprinting technology for regenerative medicine applications. Int J Bioprint, 2(2): 9–26. https://doi.org/10.18063/ IJB.2016.02.010. 
52. Sears N A, Seshadri D R, Dhavalikar P S, et al., 2016, A review of three–dimensional printing in tissue engineering. Tissue Eng Part B, 22: 298–310. https://doi.org/10.1089/ten. teb.2015.0464. 
53. Wang X, Yan Y, Zhang R., 2010, Recent trends and challenges in complex organ manufacturing. Tissue Eng Part B, 16: 189–197. https://doi.org/10.1089/ten.teb.2009.0576. 
54. Wang S, Lee J M, Yeong W Y., 2015. Smart hydrogels for 3D bioprinting. Int J Bioprint, 1: 3–14. https://doi.org/10.18063/ IJB.2015.01.005. 
55. Kang H W, Lee S J, Ko I K, et al., 2016, A 3D bioprinting system to produce human–scale tissue constructs with structural integrity. Nat Biotechnol, 34: 312–319. https://doi. org/10.1038/nbt.3413. 
56. Kirchmajer D M, Gorkin I R, Panhuis M., 2015. An overview of the suitability of hydrogel forming polymers for extrusion– based 3D–printing. J Mater Chem B, 3: 4105–4117. https:// doi.org/10.1039/C5TB00393H. 
57. Ouyang L, Yao R, Zhao Y, et al., 2016. Effect of bioink properties on printability and cell viability for 3D bioplotting of embryonic stem cells. Biofabrication, 8: 35020. https:// doi.org/10.1088/1758-5090/8/3/035020. 
58. Kolesky D B, Truby RL, Gladman A S, et al., 2014, Bioprinting: 3D bioprinting of vascularized, heterogeneous cell–laden tissue constructs. Adv Mater, 26(19): 3124–3130. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201470124. 
59. Yu J T, Xipeng T, Wai Y Y, et al., 2016, Hybrid microscaffold– based 3D bioprinting of multi–cellular constructs with high compressive strength: A new biofabrication strategy. Sci Rep, 6: 39140. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep39140. 
60. Pescosolido L, Vermonden T, Malda J, et al., 2011, In situ forming IPN hydrogels of calcium alginate and dextran– HEMA for biomedical applications. Acta Biomateria, 7: 1627–1633. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2010.11.040. 
61. Shim J H, Lee J S, Kim J Y, et al., 2012, Bioprinting of a mechanically enhanced three–dimensional dual cell–laden construct for osteochondral tissue engineering using a multi– head tissue/organ building system. J Micromech Microeng, 22: 85014. https://doi.org/10.1088/0960-1317/22/8/085014. 
62. Ng W L, Yeong W Y, Naing M W., 2016, Polyelectrolyte gelatin–chitosan hydrogel optimized for 3D bioprinting in skin tissue engineering. Int J Bioprint, 2(1): 53–62. https:// doi.org/10.18063/IJB.2016.01.009. 
63. Yan Y, Wang X, Pan Y, et al., 2005, Fabrication of viable tissue–engineered constructs with 3D cell–assembly technique. Biomaterials, 26(29): 5864–5871. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2005.02.027. 
64. Yan Y, Wang X, Xiong Z, et al., 2005, Direct construction of a three–dimensional structure with cells and hydrogel. J Bioact Compat Polym, 20(3): 259–269. https://doi. org/10.1177/0883911505053658. 
65. Wang X, Yan Y, Pan Y, et al., 2006, Generation of three dimensional hepatocyte/gelatin structures with rapid prototyping system. Tissue Eng, 12(1): 83–90. https://doi. org/10.1089/ten.2006.12.83. 
66. Zhang T, Yan Y, Wang X, et al., 2007, Three–dimensional gelatin and gelatin/hyaluronan hydrogel structures for traumatic brain injury. J Bioact Compat Polym, 22(1): 19–29. https://doi.org/10.1177/0883911506074025. 
67. Zhao X, Wang X, 2013, Preparation of an adipose–derived stem cell (ADSC)/fibrin–PLGA construct based on a rapid prototyping technique. J Bioact Compat Polym, 28(3): 191–203. https://doi.org/10.1177/0883911513481892. 
68. Zhao X, Liu L, Wang J, et al., 2014, In vitro vascularization of a combined system based on a 3D printing technique. J Tissue Eng Regen Med, 10(10): 833–842. https://doi.org/10.1002/ term.1863. 
69. Yao R, Zhang R, Yan Y, et al., 2009, In vitro angiogenesis of 3D tissue engineered adipose tissue. J Bioact Compat Polym, 24(1): 5–24. https://doi.org/10.1177/0883911508099367. 
70. Xu M, Wang X, Yan Y, et al.,2010, A cell–assembly derived physiological 3D model of the metabolic syndrome, based on adipose–derived stromal cells and a gelatin/alginate/ fibrinogen matrix. Biomaterials, 31 (14): 3868–3877. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2010.01.111. 
71. Xu M, Yan Y, Liu H, et al., 2009, Control adipose–derived stromal cells differentiation into adipose and endothelial cells in a 3–D structure established by cell–assembly technique. Adv Obstetr Gynecol, 57(1): 279–283. 
72. Li S, Yan Y, Xiong Z, et al., 2009, Gradient hydrogel construct based on an improved cell assembling system. J Bioact Compat Polym, 24(1): 84–99. https://doi. org/10.1177/0883911509103357. 
73. Xu Y, Wang X, 2015, Fluid and cell behaviors along a 3D printed alginate/gelatin/fibrin channel. Biotechnol Bioeng, 112(8): 1683–1695. https://doi.org/10.1002/bit.25579. 
74. Ghazanfari A, Li W, Leu M C, et al., 2017. A novel freeform extrusion fabrication process for producing solid ceramic components with uniform layered radiation drying. Addit Manuf, 15:102–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. addma.2017.04.001. 
75. Lee J S, Hong J M, Jung J W, et al., 2014, 3D printing of composite tissue with complex shape applied to ear regeneration. Biofabrication, 6(2): 24103. https://doi. org/10.1088/1758-5082/6/2/024103. 
76. Duan B, Kapetanovic E, Hockaday L A, et al., 2014, Three– dimensional printed trileaflet valve conduits using biological hydrogels and human valve interstitial cells. Acta Biomateria, 10: 1836–1846. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2013.12.005. 
77. Kolesky D B, Homan K A, Skylar–Scott M A, et al., 2016, Three–dimensional bioprinting of thick vascularized tissues. Proc Nat Acad Sci, 113: 3179–3184. https://doi.org/10.1073/ pnas.1521342113. 
78. Campos D F, Blaeser A, Korsten A, et al., 2014, The stiffness and structure of three–dimensional printed hydrogels direct the differentiation of mesenchymal stromal cells toward adipogenic and osteogenic lineage. Tissue Eng Part A, 21: 740–756. https://doi.org/10.1089/ten.tea.2014.0231. 
79. Nakamura M, Iwanaga S, Henmi C, et al., 2010, Biomatrices and biomaterials for future developments of bioprinting and biofabrication. Biofabrication, 2: 14110–14116. https://doi. org/10.1088/1758-5082/2/1/014110. 
80. Moroni L, Boland T, Burdick J A, et al., 2017, Biofabrication: A guide to technology and terminology. Trends Biotechnol, 36(4): 384–402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. tibtech.2017.10.015. 
81. Mir T A, Nakamura M., 2017, 3D–bio printing: Towards the era of manufacturing human organs as spare parts for healthcare and medicine. Tissue Eng Part B, 23(3): 245–256. https://doi.org/10.1089/ten.teb.2016.0398. https://doi. org/10.1042/BA20030108. 
82. Sun W, Lal P., 2004, Recent development on computer aided tissue engineering: Overview, scope and challenges. Biotechnol Appl Biochem, 39: 29–47. https://doi.org/10.1042/ BA20030108. 
83. Sanjairaj V., 2016, 3D bioprinting of skin: A state–of–the–art review on modeling, materials, and processes. Biofabrication. 8(3): 32001. https://doi.org/10.1088/1758-5090/8/3/032001. 
84. Whitford W, Hoying J B., 2017, Digital biomanufacturing supporting vascularization in 3D bioprinting. Int J Bioprint, 3(1): 18–26. https://doi.org/10.18063/IJB.2017.01.002. 
85. Brown F, Hahn M., 2012, Informatics technologies in an evolving R and D landscape. Bioprocess Int, 10(6): 64–69. 
86. Hiller J, Lipson H., 2009, Design and analysis of digital materials for physical 3D voxel printing. Rapid Prototyp J, 15: 137–149. https://doi.org/10.1108/13552540910943441. 
87. da Silva J V, Martins T A, Noritomi P Y.,2012, Scaffold informatics and biomimetic design: Three–dimensional medical reconstruction. Methods Mol Biol, 868: 91–109. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-61779-764-4_6. 
88. Fan H, Scott C., 2015, From chips to CHO cells: IT advances in upstream bioprocessing. Bioprocess Int, 13(11): 14–29. 
89. John G T., 2016, Using optical sensors for bioprocess monitoring: A measurement technique for bioprocessors. Bioprocess Int, 14(3): S45–S48. 
90. Schmitt S., 2015, Information instead of data: User–friendly HMI concept increases process control efficiency. Bioprocess Int, 13(5): 42–46. 
91. Moore C., 2016, Harnessing the power of big data to improve drug R and D. Bioprocess Int, 14(8) 2016: 64; 
92. Unadkat H V, Hulsman M, Cornelissen K, et al., 2011, An algorithm–based topographical biomaterials library to instruct cell fate. Proc Nat Acad Sci, 108: 16565–16570. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1109861108. 
93. Dalby M J, Gadegaard N, Oreffo R O., 2014, Harnessing nanotopography and integrin–matrix interactions to influence stem cell fate. Nat Mater, 13: 558. https://doi.org/10.1038/ nmat3980. 
94. Guyot Y, Papantoniou I, Chai YC, et al., 2014, A computational model for cell/ECM growth on 3D surfaces using the level set method: a bone tissue engineering case study. Biomech Model Mechanobiol, 13:1361–1371. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10237-014-0577-5. 
95. Papantoniou I, Sonnaert M, Geris L, et al., 2014, Three– dimensional characterization of tissue engineered constructs by contrast–enhanced nanofocus computed tomography. Tissue Eng Part C Methods, 20: 177–187. https://doi. org/10.1089/ten.tec.2013.0041. 
96. Guyot Y, Luyten F P, Schrooten J, et al., 2015, A three– dimensional computational fluid dynamics model of shear stress distribution during neotissue growth in a perfusion bioreactor. Biotechnol Bioeng, 112: 2591–2600. https://doi. org/10.1002/bit.25672. 
97. Maes F, Claessens T, Moesen M, et al., 2012, Computational models for wall shear stress estimation in scaffolds: A comparative study of two complete geometries. J Biomech, 45: 1586–1592. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jbiomech.2012.04.015. 
98. Lesman A, Blinder Y, Levenberg S., 2010, Modeling of flow–induced shear stress applied on 3D cellular scaffolds: Implications for vascular tissue engineering. Biotechnol Bioeng, 105: 645–654. https://doi.org/10.1002/bit.22555. 
99. Shakhawath H, Bergstrosm D J, Chen X B., 2015, Modelling and simulation of the chondrocyte cell growth, glucose consumption and lactate production within a porous tissue scaffold inside a perfusion bioreactor. Biotechnol Rep, 5: 55–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.btre.2014.12.002. 
100. Guyot Y, Papantoniou I, Luyten F P, et al., 2016, Coupling curvature dependent and shear stress–stimulated neotissue growth in dynamic bioreactor cultures: A 3D computational model of a complete scaffold. Biomech Model Mechanobiol, 15: 169–180. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10237-015-0753-2. 
101. Kadlec P, Gabrys B, Strandt S., 2009, Data–driven soft sensors in the process industry. Comput Chem Eng, 33: 795–814. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compchemeng.2008.12.012. 
102. de Assis A J, Filho R M., 2000, Soft sensors development for on–line bioreactor state estimation. Comput Chem Eng, 24: 1099–1103. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0098-1354(00)00489-0. 
103. Viazzi S, Lambrechts T, Papantoniou I, 2015, Real–time characterization of harvesting process for adherent cell culture based on on–line imaging and model–based monitoring. Biosyst Eng, 138: 104–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. biosystemseng.2015.06.006. 
104. Lambrechts T, Papantoniou I, Sonnaert M, et al., 2014, Model–based cell number quantification using online single oxygen sensor data for tissue engineering perfusion bioreactors. Biotechnol Bioeng, 111: 1982–1992. https://doi. org/10.1002/bit.25274. 
105. Hebels D, Carlier A, Coonen M, et al., 2017, cBiT: A transcriptomics database for innovative biomaterial engineering. Biomaterials, 149: 88–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. siny.2013.04.008. 
106. Gittenberger–de G A, Bartelings M M, Poelmann R E, et al., 2013, Embryology of the heart and its impact on understanding fetal and neonatal heart disease. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med, 18(5): 237–244. 
107. Baldwin D E., 2018, Heart development. Encyclopedia Cardiovasc Res Med, 2018: 380–398. 
108. Kloesel B, DiNardo J A, Body S C.,2016, Cardiac embryology and molecular mechanisms of congenital heart disease – A primer for anesthesiologists. Anesth Analg, 123(3): 551–569. https://doi.org/10.1213/ANE.0000000000001451. 
109. Heart Embryology Video. Available from: https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=5DIUk9IXUaI 
110. Michał S, Monika P A, Alina W, et al., 2015, Three– dimensional growth dynamics of the liver in the human fetus. Surg Radiol Anat, 37(5): 439–448. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s00276-015-1437-4. 
111. Barrya J S, Anthony R V., 2008, The pregnant sheep as a model for human pregnancy. Theriogenology, 69(1): 55–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.theriogenology.2007.09.021. 
112. Toshihiro K, Akiteru M, Toshihiko S, et al., 2017, Development and growth of organs in living whole embryo and larval grafts in zebrafish. Sci Rep, 7: 16508. https://doi. org/10.1038/s41598-017-16642-5. 
113. Gideon H, Julian N, Oded M, et al., 2015, Venous–derived angioblasts generate organ–specific vessels during zebrafish embryonic development. Development, 142: 4266–4278. https://doi.org/10.1242/dev.129247. 
114. Wenyao Z, Xue Z L, Tong X, et al., 2016, Inflammatory responses of stromal fibroblasts to inflammatory epithelial cells are involved in the pathogenesis of bovine mastitis. Exp Cell Res, 349(1): 45–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. yexcr.2016.09.016. 
115. Sophie V L, Kapka M, Carsten T., 2014, Crosstalk between fibroblasts and inflammatory cells. Cardiovasc Res, 102(2): 258–269. https://doi.org/10.1093/cvr/cvu062. 
116. Justin H, Douglas L., 2016, Role of inflammatory cells in fibroblast activation. J Mol Cell Cardiol, 93: 143–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yjmcc.2015.11.016.

Share
Back to top
International Journal of Bioprinting, Electronic ISSN: 2424-8002 Print ISSN: 2424-7723, Published by AccScience Publishing