AccScience Publishing / MSAM / Online First / DOI: 10.36922/MSAM026220048
Submit to MSAM
Cite this article
8
Download
140
Views
Related Info Links
Google Scholar
More by Authors Links
Shaowu Liu
Jianhua Yao
Journal Browser
Volume | Year
Issue
Search
Forthcoming Issue
Current Issue
View All
News and Announcements
View All
ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

Laser-assisted cold spray additive manufacturing of Ti6Al4V: Synergistic evolution of microstructure refinement and interface bonding

Shaowu Liu1,2* ,  Shen Wang1,2 ,  Yehao Zhang1,2 ,  Hongjian Wu3 ,  Wenbo Li4 ,  Bo Li1,2 ,  Zexin Yu1,2 ,  Panpan Zhang1,2 ,  Shuo Yin5 ,  Qunli Zhang1,2 ,  Hanlin Liao6 ,  Jianhua Yao1,2*
Show Less
1 Institute of Laser Advanced Manufacturing, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
2 College of Mechanical Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
3 Institute of Materials Science, Helmut Schmidt University, Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
4 National Engineering Laboratory of Modern Materials Surface Engineering Technology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Modern Surface Engineering Technology, Institute of New Materials, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
5 Department of Mechanical, Manufacturing & Biomedical Engineering, Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, Dublin, Leinster, Ireland
6 Laboratoire of Interdisciplinary Carnot of Bourgogne (ICB UMR 6303 CNRS), University of Bourgogne-Franche-Comté, Belfort, Bourgogne-Franche-Comté, France
MSAM, 026220048 https://doi.org/10.36922/MSAM026220048
Received: 25 May 2026 | Revised: 29 June 2026 | Accepted: 6 July 2026 | Published online: 23 July 2026
© 2026 by the Author(s). This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ )
Download PDF
XML
Cite
Abstract

The aluminum/titanium (Al/Ti) couple is a typical “limited mutual solubility heterogeneous metal” system, in which fusion-based manufacturing often leads to brittle intermetallic compounds and cracks. This study systematically investigates the microstructure and mechanical properties of Ti6Al4V deposited on 6061Al substrates via laser-assisted cold spray (LACS). X-ray diffraction (XRD) results confirm that the process maintains solid-state deposition characteristics, with only the α-Ti phase detected, indicating no detectable Al/Ti intermetallic compounds by XRD across all conditions. Laser assistance significantly enhanced deposition layer densification; at 600 W, the porosity decreased from 11.81% to 0.41%. Electron backscatter diffraction and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) characterizations revealed that the LACS process triggered intense dynamic recrystallization, refining the average grain size from 1.906 μm to 0.813 μm. High-resolution TEM analysis further identified a nanoscale grain gradient and a ~5 μm elemental transition zone layer at the bonding interface, demonstrating the formation of a compositionally graded interfacial region accompanied by mechanical interlocking and localized elemental redistribution. Performance tests showed that increasing the laser power increased the microhardness to 388.1 HV0.2. Compared to cold spraying, the LACS-600 W samples achieved a 40% increase in ultimate tensile strength (206.58 MPa) and a 100% improvement in elongation (2.17%). The results indicate that LACS provides a high-performance solid-state additive manufacturing solution for Ti6Al4V/6061Al heterogeneous structures through the synergistic effects of laser-induced thermal accumulation and particle tamping densification.

Graphical abstract
Keywords
Ti6Al4V/6061Al
Laser-assisted cold spray
Solid-state deposition
Dynamic recrystallization
Mechanical properties
Funding
This work was supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (Grant No. 2024YFB4609600); “Pioneer” and “Leading Goose” Research and Development Program of Zhejiang Province (2026C02A1211); Zhejiang Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China (LQN25E050015); Young Talent Project of GDAS (2025GDASQNRC-0304); and GDAS Project of Science and Technology Development (2024GDASZH-2024010102).
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
References
  1. Williams JC, Starke EA. Progress in structural materials for aerospace systems. Acta Mater. 2003;51(19):5775-5799. doi: 10.1016/j.actamat.2003.08.023
  2. Xu Z, Ouyang W, Liu Y, Jiao J, Liu Y, Zhang W. Effects of laser polishing on surface morphology and mechanical properties of additive manufactured TiAl components. J Manuf Process. 2021;65:51-59. doi: 10.1016/j.jmapro.2021.03.014
  3. Li SS, Yue X, Li QY, et al. Development and applications of aluminum alloys for aerospace industry. J Mater Res Technol. 2023;27:944-983. doi: 10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.09.274
  4. Cao M, Wang CJ, Deng KK, Nie KB, Liang W, Wu YC. Effect of interface on mechanical properties and formability of Ti/Al/Ti laminated composites. J Mater Res Technol. 2021;14:1655-1669. doi: 10.1016/j.jmrt.2021.07.021
  5. Que B, Chen L, Qian L, Kong X, Zhao G. Tailoring the microstructure of Al/Ti laminated composite through hot press sintering process to achieve superior mechanical properties. J Mater Process Technol. 2024;326:118349. doi: 10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2024.118349
  6. Fang Z-C, Wu Z-L, Huang C-G, Wu C-W. Review on residual stress in selective laser melting additive manufacturing of alloy parts. Opt Laser Technol. 2020;129:106283. doi: 10.1016/j.optlastec.2020.106283
  7. Li Z, Chai L, Qi L, et al. Laser-cladded Al-Cr-Ti ternary alloy coatings on Ti-4Al-2V alloy: Specific microstructure and enhanced surface performance. Surf Coat Technol. 2023;452:129073. doi: 10.1016/j.surfcoat.2022.129073
  8. Yin S, Yan X, Chen C, Jenkins R, Liu M, Lupoi R. Hybrid additive manufacturing of Al-Ti6Al4V functionally graded materials with selective laser melting and cold spraying. J Mater Process Technol. 2018;255:650-655. doi: 10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2018.01.015
  9. Zhang J, Wang X, Gao J, et al. Additive manufacturing of Ti–6Al–4V/Al–Cu–Mg multi-material structures with a Cu interlayer. Int J Mech Sci. 2023;256:108477. doi: 10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2023.108477
  10. Chen X, Lei Z, Chen Y, et al. Microstructure and tensile properties of Ti/Al dissimilar joint by laser welding-brazing at subatmospheric pressure. J Manuf Process. 2020;56:19-27. doi: 10.1016/j.jmapro.2020.04.062
  11. Moridi A, Hassani-Gangaraj SM, Guagliano M, Dao M. Cold spray coating: review of material systems and future perspectives. Surf Eng. 2014;30(6):369-395. doi: 10.1179/1743294414Y.0000000270
  12. Raoelison RN, Xie Y, Sapanathan T, et al. Cold gas dynamic spray technology: A comprehensive review of processing conditions for various technological developments till to date. Addit Manuf. 2018;19:134-159. doi: 10.1016/j.addma.2017.07.001
  13. Rokni M, Nutt S, Widener C, Champagne V, Hrabe R. Review of relationship between particle deformation, coating microstructure, and properties in high-pressure cold spray. J Therm Spray Technol. 2017;26(6):1308-1355. doi: 10.1007/s11666-017-0575-0
  14. Lett S, Cormier J, Quet A, Villechaise P, Meillot E, Hémery S. Microstructure optimization of cold sprayed Ti-6Al-4V using post-process heat treatment for improved mechanical properties. Addit Manuf. 2024;86:104168. doi: 10.1016/j.addma.2024.104168
  15. Wang Q, Han P, Yin S, et al. Current research status on cold sprayed amorphous alloy coatings: A review. Coatings. 2021;11(2):206. doi: 10.3390/coatings11020206
  16. Yin S, Chen C, Suo X, Lupoi R. Cold-Sprayed Metal Coatings with Nanostructure. Adv Mater Sci Eng. 2018;2018(1):2804576. doi: 10.1155/2018/2804576
  17. Bae G, Kumar S, Yoon S, et al. Bonding features and associated mechanisms in kinetic sprayed titanium coatings. Acta Mater. 2009;57(19):5654-5666. doi: 10.1016/j.actamat.2009.07.061
  18. Li WY, Cao CC, Yin S. Solid-state cold spraying of Ti and its alloys: A literature review. Prog Mater Sci. 2020;110:100633. doi: 10.1016/j.pmatsci.2019.100633
  19. Wei J, Aghasibeig M, Lyu T, et al. Cold spray deposition and microstructure characterization of CuNi, CuSn, and CuNiSiCr coatings. Surf Coat Technol. 2024;480:130621. doi: 10.1016/j.surfcoat.2024.130621
  20. Yin S, Wang X, Suo X, et al. Deposition behavior of thermally softened copper particles in cold spraying. Acta Mater. 2013;61(14):5105-5118. doi: 10.1016/j.actamat.2013.04.041
  21. Xie XL, Yin S, Raoelison RN, et al. Al matrix composites fabricated by solid-state cold spray deposition: A critical review. J Mater Sci Technol. 2021;86:20-55. doi: 10.1016/j.jmst.2021.01.026
  22. Wei Y-K, Luo X-T, Chu X, Huang G-S, Li C-J. Solid-state additive manufacturing high performance aluminum alloy 6061 enabled by an in-situ micro-forging assisted cold spray. Mater Sci Eng A. 2020;776:139024. doi: 10.1016/j.msea.2020.139024
  23. Kovarik O, Cizek J, Yin S, et al. Mechanical and Fatigue Properties of Diamond-Reinforced Cu and Al Metal Matrix Composites Prepared by Cold Spray. J Therm Spray Technol. 2022;31(1-2):217-233. doi: 10.1007/s11666-022-01321-3
  24. Dai S, Cui MC, Li JH, Zhang M. Cold Spray Technology and Its Application in the Manufacturing of Metal Matrix Composite Materials with Carbon-Based Reinforcements. Coatings. 2024;14(7):822. doi: 10.3390/coatings14070822
  25. Zórawski W, Molak R, Madry J, et al. Experimental and Numerical Investigations of Titanium Deposition for Cold Spray Additive Manufacturing as a Function of Standoff Distance. Materials. 2021;14(19):5492. doi: 10.3390/ma14195492
  26. Drehmann R, Colditz P, Graf M, et al. Forming Behavior of Additively Manufactured Al/Ti Material Compounds Produced by Cold Spraying. J Therm Spray Technol. 2024;33(2):676-687. doi: 10.1007/s11666-023-01699-8
  27. Shen L, Kong LY, Xiong TY, Du H, Li TF. Preparation of TiAl3-Al composite coating by cold spraying. Trans Nonferrous Met Soc China. 2009;19(4):879-882. doi: 10.1016/S1003-6326(08)60369-6
  28. Bray M, Cockburn A, O'Neill W. The Laser-assisted Cold Spray process and deposit characterisation. Surf Coat Technol. 2009;203(19):2851-2857. doi: 10.1016/j.surfcoat.2009.02.135
  29. Olakanmi EO, Doyoyo M. Laser-Assisted Cold-Sprayed Corrosion- and Wear-Resistant Coatings: A Review. J Therm Spray Technol. 2014;23(5):765-785. doi: 10.1007/s11666-014-0098-x
  30. Wang K, Zhao L, Mao T, Cui X, Wang J, Xiong T. Effect of laser power on the microstructure and mechanical properties of laser-assisted cold sprayed 7075 aluminum alloy deposits. Mater Sci Eng A. 2023;879:145224. doi: 10.1016/j.msea.2023.145224
  31. Qi Z, Li Y, Chu X, Xie Y, Long Y. Effect of laser power on microstructure and properties of laser assisted cold sprayed copper coatings on steel. Surf Coat Technol. 2024;477:130308. doi: 10.1016/j.surfcoat.2023.130308
  32. Boese S, Sevinsky A, Nourian-Avval A, Özdemir O, Müftü S. Laser assisted cold spray of aluminum alloy 6061: Experimental results. Addit Manuf. 2024;95:104548. doi: 10.1016/j.addma.2024.104548
  33. Yin S, Fan N, Huang C, et al. Towards high-strength cold spray additive manufactured metals: Methods, mechanisms, and properties. J Mater Sci Technol. 2024;170:47-64. doi: 10.1016/j.jmst.2023.05.047
  34. Yao J, Yang L, Li B, Li Z. Beneficial effects of laser irradiation on the deposition process of diamond/Ni60 composite coating with cold spray. Appl Surf Sci. 2015;330:300-308. doi: 10.1016/j.apsusc.2015.01.029
  35. Li B, Yao J, Zhang Q, Li Z, Yang L. Microstructure and tribological performance of tungsten carbide reinforced stainless steel composite coatings by supersonic laser deposition. Surf Coat Technol. 2015;275:58-68. doi: 10.1016/j.surfcoat.2015.05.040
  36. Boruah D, McNutt P, Sharma D, Begg H, Zhang X. Understanding the Effect of Substrate Preheating Temperature and Track Spacing on Laser Assisted Cold Spraying of Ti6Al4V. Metals. 2023;13(10):1640. doi: 10.3390/met13101640
  37. Birt AM, Champagne VK, Sisson RD, Apelian D. Statistically Guided Development of Laser-Assisted Cold Spray for Microstructural Control of Ti-6Al-4V. Metall Mater Trans A. 2017;48(4):1931-1943. doi: 10.1007/s11661-017-3970-8
  38. Williamson GK, Hall WH. X-ray line broadening from filed aluminium and wolfram. Acta Metall. 1953;1(1):22-31. doi: 10.1016/0001-6160(53)90006-6
  39. ASTM. Standard Test Method for Adhesion or Cohesion Strength of Thermal Spray Coatings (ASTM 633-01). West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International; 2008.
  40. Jafari R, Honkanen M, Amer M, et al. Impact-induced deformation and microstructural evolution in cold-spray deposition of aluminum alloy–quasicrystal composite: A characterization perspective. Mater Des. 2025;253:113977. doi: 10.1016/j.matdes.2025.113977
  41. Zhou HX, Jiang SW, Li XT, Li CX. Deposition behavior and bonding mechanism during cold spraying of Ti6Al4V on different substrates. Surfaces Interfaces. 2022;33:102237. doi: 10.1016/j.surfin.2022.102237
  42. Gao J, Cao Y, Lu L, et al. Study on the interaction between nanosecond laser and 6061 aluminum alloy considering temperature dependence. J Alloys Compd. 2022;892:162044. doi: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2021.162044
  43. Huang K, Logé RE. A review of dynamic recrystallization phenomena in metallic materials. Mater Des. 2016;111:548-574. doi: 10.1016/j.matdes.2016.09.012
  44. Allain-Bonasso N, Wagner F, Berbenni S, Field DP. A study of the heterogeneity of plastic deformation in IF steel by EBSD. Mater Sci Eng A. 2012;548:56-63. doi: 10.1016/j.msea.2012.03.068
  45. Schwartz AJ, Kumar M, Adams BL, Field DP. Electron Backscatter Diffraction in Materials Science. Vol 2. New York, NY: Springer; 2009.
  46. Cordero ZC, Knight BE, Schuh CA. Six decades of the Hall–Petch effect – a survey of grain-size strengthening studies on pure metals. Int Mater Rev. 2016;61(8):495-512. doi: 10.1080/09506608.2016.1191808
  47. Hansen N. Hall–Petch relation and boundary strengthening. Scr Mater. 2004;51(8):801-806. doi: 10.1016/j.scriptamat.2004.06.002
  48. Chen C, Xie Y, Yan X, et al. Effect of hot isostatic pressing (HIP) on microstructure and mechanical properties of Ti6Al4V alloy fabricated by cold spray additive manufacturing. Addit Manuf. 2019;27:595-605. doi: 10.1016/j.addma.2019.03.028
  49. Petrovskiy P, Travyanov A, Cheverikin VV, Chereshneva AA, Sova A, Smurov I. Effect of encapsulated hot isostatic pressing on properties of Ti6Al4V deposits produced by cold spray. Int J Adv Manuf Technol. 2020;107(1):437-449. doi: 10.1007/s00170-020-05080-9
  50. Petrovskiy P, Khomutov M, Cheverikin V, Travyanov A, Sova A, Smurov I. Influence of hot isostatic pressing on the properties of 316L stainless steel, Al-Mg-Sc-Zr alloy, titanium and Ti6Al4V cold spray deposits. Surf Coat Technol. 2021;405:126736. doi: 10.1016/j.surfcoat.2020.126736
  51. Ligda JP, Butler BG, Saenz N, Paramore J. Mechanical Behavior of Additively Manufactured Ti-6Al-4V Following a New Heat Treatment. In: Kramer S, Jordan J, Jin H, Carroll J, Beese A, eds. Mechanics of Additive and Advanced Manufacturing, Volume 8. Conference Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Mechanics Series. Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing; 2019:29-30. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-95083-9_6
  52. Boruah D, Zhang X, McNutt P, Khan R, Begg H. Effect of Post-Deposition Thermal Treatments on Tensile Properties of Cold Sprayed Ti6Al4V. Metals. 2022;12(11):1908. doi: 10.3390/met12111908
  53. Arabgol Z, Villa Vidaller M, Assadi H, Gärtner F, Klassen T. Influence of thermal properties and temperature of substrate on the quality of cold-sprayed deposits. Acta Mater. 2017;127:287-301. doi: 10.1016/j.actamat.2017.01.040
  54. Singh S, Raman RKS, Berndt CC, Singh H. Influence of Cold Spray Parameters on Bonding Mechanisms: A Review. Metals. 2021;11(12):2016. doi: 10.3390/met11122016
  55. Yang L, Wang P, Luo X, et al. Nanocrystallization of interfacial microstructure of deformed particles in cold sprayed Ti6Al4V deposits. Mater Des. 2021;210:110117. doi: 10.1016/j.matdes.2021.110117
  56. Liu S, Zheng W, Wang S, et al. Synergistic optimization of heterogeneous interface bonding and surface performance of 316 stainless steel coatings deposited on 7050Al alloy substrates via laser-assisted cold spray. J Mater Res Technol. 2026;43:225-240. doi: 10.1016/j.jmrt.2026.06.072
  57. Li B, Cheng J, Wang H, et al. Improved inter-particle bonding of cold sprayed Ti6Al4V coatings by synchronously coupling with laser irradiation and in-situ shot peening during deposition process. Surf Coat Technol. 2026;533:133654. doi: 10.1016/j.surfcoat.2026.133654
  58. Ding XY, Fu YC, Li B, et al. Microstructure and mechanical properties of Al2O3 dispersion strengthened Cu by laser in-situ aluminum thermal reduction processing. Mater Des. 2025;258:114547. doi: 10.1016/j.matdes.2025.114547
Share
Back to top
Materials Science in Additive Manufacturing, Electronic ISSN: 2810-9635 Published by AccScience Publishing
We use cookies on our website to ensure you get the best experience.
Read more about our cookies here
Accept