1. Eliaz N, Metoki N, 2017, Calcium phosphate bioceramics: a review of their history, structure, properties, coating technologies and biomedical applications. Materials (Basel), 10: 334. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma10040334 
2. Fratzl P, Weinkamer R, 2007, Nature’s hierarchical materials. Prog Mater Sci, 52: 1263–1334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmatsci.2007.06.001 
3. Koester KJ, Ager J, Ritchie R, 2008, The true toughness of human cortical bone measured with realistically short Cracks. Nat Mater, 7: 672–677. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmat2221 
4. Rho JY, Kuhn-Spearing L, Zioupos P, 1998, Mechanical properties and the hierarchical structure of bone. Med Eng Phys, 20: 92–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1350-4533(98)00007-1 
5. Ke P, Jiao XN, Ge XH, et al., 2014, From macro to micro: Structural biomimetic materials by electrospinning. RSC Adv, 4: 39704–39724. https://doi.org/10.1039/C4RA05098C 
6. Vallet-Regí M, Navarrete DA, Arcos D, 2008, Biomimetic nanoceramics in clinical use: from materials to applications. London, UK: Royal society of chemistry. 
7. Florencio-Silva R, Sasso GR, Sasso-Cerri E, et al., 2015, Biology of bone tissue: Structure, function, and factors that influence bone cells. Biomed Res Int, 2015: 421746. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/421746 
8. Murugan R, Ramakrishna S, 2005, Development of nanocomposites for bone grafting. Compos Sci Technol, 65: 2385–2406. 
9. Bonfield W, Wang M, Tanner K, 1998, Interfaces in analogue biomaterials. Acta Mater, 46: 2509–2518. 
10. Atala A, 2000, Tissue engineering for bladder substitution. World Journal of Urology, 18: 364–370. https://doi.org/10.1007/s003450000152 
11. Melchels F, Domingos M, Klein TJ, et al., 2012, Additive manufacturing of tissues and organ. Prog Polym Sci, 37: 1079–1104. 
12. Bigham A, Foroughi F, Ghomi ER, et al., 2020, The journey of multifunctional bone scaffolds fabricated from traditional toward modern techniques. Bio Des Manuf, 3: 281–306. 
13. Ashammakhi N, Hasan A, Kaarela O, et al., 2019, Advancing frontiers in bone bioprinting. Adv Healthc Mater, 8: 1801048. 
14. Lee JM, Yeong WY, 2016, Design and printing strategies in 3D bioprinting of cell-hydrogels: A review. Adv Healthc Mater, 5: 2856–2865. https://doi.org/10.1002/adhm.201600435 
15. Gudapati H, Dey M, Ozbolat I, 2016, A comprehensive review on droplet-based bioprinting: Past, present and future. Biomaterials, 102: 20–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2016.06.012 
16. Koch L, Gruene M, Unger C, et al., 2013, Laser assisted cell printing. Curr Pharm Biotechnol, 14: 91–97. 
17. Guillotin B, Ali M, Ducom A, et al., 2013, Laser-assisted bioprinting for tissue engineering. In: Forgacs g, sun w, editors. Biofabrication micro and nano-fabrication printing patterning assem. Boston: william andrew publishing. p95–p118. 
18. Ayan B, Heo DN, Zhang Z, et al., 2020, Aspiration-assisted bioprinting for precise positioning of biologics. Sci Adv, 6: eaaw5111. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aaw5111 
19. Lee KY, Mooney DJ, 2012, Alginate: properties and biomedical applications. Prog Polym Sci, 37: 106–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2011.06.003 
20. Funakoshi T, Majima T, Iwasaki N, et al., 2005, Application of tissue engineering techniques for rotator cuff regeneration using a chitosan-based hyaluronan hybrid fiber scaffold. Am J Sports Med, 33: 1193–1201. https://doi.org/10.1177/0363546504272689 
21. Laranjeira M, Domingues RM, Costa-Almeida R, et al., 2017, 3D mimicry of native-tissue-fiber architecture guides tendon-derived cells and adipose stem cells into artificial tendon constructs. Small, 13: 1700689. https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.201700689 
22. Nichol JW, Koshy ST, Bae H, et al., 2010, Cell-laden microengineered gelatin methacrylate hydrogels. Biomaterials, 31: 5536–5544. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2010.03.064 
23. Yue K, Trujillo-de Santiago G, Alvarez MM, et al., 2015, Synthesis, properties, and biomedical applications of gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) hydrogels. Biomaterials, 73: 254–271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2015.08.045 
24. Klotz BJ, Gawlitta D, Rosenberg AJ, et al., 2016, Gelatin-methacryloyl hydrogels: Towards biofabrication-based tissue repair. Trends Biotechnol, 34: 394–407. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tibtech.2016.01.002 
25. D O’Connell C, Di Bella C, Thompson F, et al., 2016, Development of the biopen: A handheld device for surgical printing of adipose stem cells at a chondral wound site. Biofabrication, 8: 015019. https://doi.org/10.1088/1758-5090/8/1/015019 
26. Evinger AJ, Jeyakumar JM, Hook LA, et al., 2013, Osteogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stem/stromal cells within 3D bioprinted neotissues. FASEB J, 27: 193. 
27. Kuss MA, Harms R, Wu S, et al., 2017, Short-term hypoxic preconditioning promotes prevascularization in 3D bioprinted bone constructs with stromal vascular fraction derived cells. RSC Adv, 7: 29312–29320. https://doi.org/10.1039/C7RA04372D 
28. Schuurman W, Khristov V, Pot MW, et al., 2011, Bioprinting of hybrid tissue constructs with tailorable mechanical Properties. Biofabrication, 3: 021001. https://doi.org/10.1088/1758-5082/3/2/021001 
29. Cohen DL, Malone E, Lipson H, et al., 2006, Direct freeform fabrication of seeded hydrogels in arbitrary geometries. Tissue Eng, 12: 1325–1335. https://doi.org/10.1089/ten.2006.12.1325 
30. Schagemann J, Chung H, Mrosek E, et al., 2010, Poly-∈-caprolactone/gel hybrid scaffolds for cartilage tissue engineering. J Biomed Mater Res A, 93: 454–463. https://doi.org/10.1002/jbm.a.32521 
31. Endres M, Hutmacher D, Salgado A, et al., 2003, Osteogenic induction of human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal progenitor cells in novel synthetic polymer-hydrogel matrices. Tissue Eng, 9: 689–702. https://doi.org/10.1089/107632703768247386 
32. Park JW, Shin YC, Kang HG, et al., 2021, In Vivo analysis of post-joint-preserving surgery fracture of 3D-printed ti-6al-4v implant to treat bone Cancer. Bio Des Manuf, 4: 879–888. 
33. Li X, Yuan Y, Liu L, et al., 2020, 3D printing of hydroxyapatite/ tricalcium phosphate scaffold with hierarchical porous structure for bone regeneration. Bio Des Manuf, 3: 15–29. 
34. Dong Y, Duan H, Zhao N, et al., 2018, Three-dimensional printing of β-tricalcium phosphate/calcium silicate composite scaffolds for bone tissue engineering. Bio Des Manuf, 1: 146–156. 
35. Zhang B, Sun H, Wu L, et al., 2019, 3D printing of calcium phosphate bioceramic with tailored biodegradation rate for skull bone tissue reconstruction. Bio Des Manuf, 2: 161–171. 
36. Oladapo BI, Zahedi SA, Ismail SO, et al., 2021, 3D printing of peek-chap scaffold for medical bone implant. Bio Des Manuf, 4: 44–59. 
37. Wang X, Schröder HC, Wang K, et al., 2012, Genetic, biological and structural hierarchies during sponge spicule formation: From soft sol-gels to solid 3d silica composite structures. Soft Matter, 8: 9501–9518. 
38. Wiens M, Wang X, Schröder HC, et al., 2010, The role of biosilica in the osteoprotegerin/rankl ratio in human osteoblast-like cells. Biomaterials, 31: 7716–7725. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2010.07.002 
39. Nguyen LH, Annabi N, Nikkhah M, et al., 2012, Vascularized bone tissue engineering: Approaches for potential improvement. Tissue Eng Part B Rev, 18: 363–382. https://doi.org/10.1089/ten.TEB.2012.0012 
40. Oryan A, Alidadi S, Moshiri A, et al., 2014, Bone regenerative medicine: Classic options, novel strategies, and future directions. J Orthop Surg Res, 9: 18. https://doi.org/10.1186/1749-799X-9-18 
41. Wang J, Yang M, Zhu Y, et al., 2014, Phage nanofibers induce vascularized osteogenesis in 3D printed bone scaffolds. Adv Mater, 26: 4961–4966. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201400154 
42. Wang MO, Vorwald CE, Dreher ML, et al., 2015, Evaluating 3D-printed biomaterials as scaffolds for vascularized bone tissue engineering. Adv Mater, 27: 138–144. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201403943 
43. Whang K, Healy K, Elenz D, et al., 1999, Engineering bone regeneration with bioabsorbable scaffolds with novel microarchitecture. Tissue Eng, 5: 35–51. https://doi.org/10.1089/ten.1999.5.35 
44. Lee H, Ahn S, Bonassar LJ, et al., 2013, Cell (MC3T3-E1)- printed poly (∈-caprolactone)/alginate hybrid scaffolds for tissue regeneration. Macromol Rapid Commun, 34: 142–149. https://doi.org/10.1002/marc.201200524 
45. Amini AR, Laurencin CT, Nukavarapu SP, 2012, Differential analysis of peripheral blood-and bone marrow-derived endothelial progenitor cells for enhanced vascularization in bone tissue engineering. J Orthop Res, 30: 1507–1515. https://doi.org/10.1002/jor.22097 
46. Samorezov JE, Alsberg E, 2015, Spatial regulation of controlled bioactive factor delivery for bone tissue engineering. Adv Drug Deliv Rev, 84: 45–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addr.2014.11.018 
47. Santos MI, Reis RL, 2010, Vascularization in bone tissue engineering: Physiology, current strategies, major hurdles and future challenges. Macromol Biosci, 10: 12–27. https://doi.org/10.1002/mabi.200900107 
48. Kirkpatrick CJ, Fuchs S, Unger RE, 2011, Co-culture systems for vascularization-learning from nature. Adv Drug Deliv Rev, 63: 291–299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addr.2011.01.009 
49. Brennan MA, Davaine JM, Layrolle P, 2013, Pre-vascularization of bone tissue-engineered constructs. Stem Cell Res Ther, 4: 1–3. https://doi.org/10.1186/scrt307 
50. Mishra R, Roux BM, Posukonis M, et al., 2016, Effect of prevascularization on in vivo vascularization of poly (propylene fumarate)/fibrin scaffolds. Biomaterials, 77: 255–266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2015.10.026 
51. Wüst S, Godla ME, Müller R, et al., 2014, Tunable hydrogel composite with two-step processing in combination with innovative hardware upgrade for cell-based three-dimensional bioprinting. Acta Biomater, 10: 630–640. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2013.10.016 
52. Byambaa B, Annabi N, Yue K, et al., 2017, Bioprinted osteogenic and vasculogenic patterns for engineering 3D bone tissue. Adv Healthc Mater, 6: 1700015. https://doi.org/10.1002/adhm.201700015 
53. Cui H, Zhu W, Nowicki M, et al., 2016, Hierarchical fabrication of engineered vascularized bone biphasic constructs via dual 3D bioprinting: Integrating regional bioactive factors into architectural design. Adv Healthc Mater, 5: 2174–2181. https://doi.org/10.1002/adhm.201600505 
54. Rodan SB, Imai Y, Thiede MA, et al., 1987, Characterization of a human osteosarcoma cell line (saos-2) with osteoblastic properties. Cancer Res, 47: 4961–4966. 
55. Hausser HJ, Brenner RE, 2005, Phenotypic instability of saos-2 cells in long-term culture. Biochem Biophys Res Commun, 333: 216–222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2005.05.097 
56. Das S, Pati F, Choi YJ, et al., 2015, Bioprintable, cell-laden silk fibroin-gelatin hydrogel supporting multilineage differentiation of stem cells for fabrication of three-dimensional tissue constructs. Acta Biomater, 11: 233–246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2014.09.023 
57. Sabapathy V, Kumar S, 2016, hiPSC-derived iMSCs: NextGen MSCs as an advanced therapeutically active cell resource for regenerative medicine. J Cell Mol Med, 20: 1571–1588. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcmm.12839 
58. Fedorovich NE, Wijnberg HM, Dhert WJ, et al., 2011, Distinct tissue formation by heterogeneous printing of osteo-and endothelial progenitor cells. Tissue Eng Part A, 17: 2113–2121. https://doi.org/10.1089/ten.TEA.2011.0019 
59. Gruene M, Pflaum M, Hess C, et al., 2011, Laser printing of three-dimensional multicellular arrays for studies of cell-cell and cell-environment interactions. Tissue Eng Part C Methods, 17: 973–982. https://doi.org/10.1089/ten.TEC.2011.0185 
60. Merfeld-Clauss S, Gollahalli N, March KL, et al., 2010, Adipose tissue progenitor cells directly interact with endothelial cells to induce vascular network formation. Tissue Eng Part A, 16: 2953–2966. https://doi.org/10.1089/ten.tea.2009.0635 
61. Wu Y, Chen L, Scott PG, et al., 2007, Mesenchymal stem cells enhance wound healing through differentiation and angiogenesis. Stem cells, 25: 2648–2659. https://doi.org/10.1634/stemcells.2007-0226 
62. Pederson L, Ruan M, Westendorf JJ, et al., 2008, Regulation of bone formation by osteoclasts involves wnt/bmp signaling and the chemokine sphingosine-1-phosphate. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 105: 20764–20769. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0805133106 
63. Guihard P, Danger Y, Brounais B, et al., 2012, Induction of osteogenesis in mesenchymal stem cells by activated monocytes/macrophages depends on oncostatin m signaling. Stem cells, 30: 762–772. https://doi.org/10.1002/stem.1040 
64. Albrektsson T, Johansson C, 2001, Osteoinduction, osteoconduction and osseointegration. Eur Spine J, 10: S96–S101. https://doi.org/10.1007/s005860100282 
65. Brydone A, Meek D, Maclaine S, 2010, Bone grafting, orthopaedic biomaterials, and the clinical need for bone engineering. Proc Inst Mech Eng H, 224: 1329–1343. https://doi.org/10.1243/09544119JEIM770 
66. Dimitriou R, Jones E, McGonagle D, et al., 2011, Bone regeneration: Current concepts and future directions. BMC Med, 9: 1–10. 
67. Fratzl P, Gupta H, Paschalis E, et al., 2004, Structure and mechanical quality of the collagen-mineral nano-composite in bone. J Mater Chem, 14: 2115–2123. https://doi.org/10.1039/B402005G 
68. Kreimendahl F, Köpf M, Thiebes AL, et al., 2017, Three-dimensional printing and angiogenesis: tailored agarose-type i collagen blends comprise three-dimensional printability and angiogenesis potential for tissue-engineered substitutes. Tissue Eng Part C Methods, 23: 604–615. https://doi.org/10.1089/ten.TEC.2017.0234 
69. Karageorgiou V, Meinel L, Hofmann S, et al., 2004, Bone morphogenetic protein-2 decorated silk fibroin films induce osteogenic differentiation of human bone marrow stromal cells. J Biomed Mater Res A, 71: 528–537. https://doi.org/10.1002/jbm.a.30186 
70. Zhao L, Jiang S, Hantash BM, 2010, Transforming growth factor β1 induces osteogenic differentiation of murine bone marrow stromal cells. Tissue Eng Part A, 16: 725–733. https://doi.org/10.1089/ten.TEA.2009.0495 
71. Fedorovich NE, De Wijn JR, Verbout AJ, et al., 2008, Three-dimensional fiber deposition of cell-laden, viable, patterned constructs for bone tissue printing. Tissue Eng Part A, 14: 127–133. https://doi.org/10.1089/ten.a.2007.0158 
72. Poldervaart MT, Goversen B, De Ruijter M, et al., 2017, 3D bioprinting of methacrylated hyaluronic acid (MeHA) hydrogel with intrinsic osteogenicity. PLoS One, 12: e0177628. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0177628 
73. McBeth C, Lauer J, Ottersbach M, et al., 2017, 3D bioprinting of gelma scaffolds triggers mineral deposition by primary human osteoblasts. Biofabrication, 9: 015009. https://doi.org/10.1088/1758-5090/aa53bd 
74. Demirtaş TT, Irmak G, Gümüşderelioğlu M, 2017, A bioprintable form of chitosan hydrogel for bone tissue engineering. Biofabrication, 9: 035003. https://doi.org/10.1088/1758-5090/aa7b1d 
75. Neufurth M, Wang X, Schröder HC, et al., 2014, Engineering a morphogenetically active hydrogel for bioprinting of bioartificial tissue derived from human osteoblast-like saos-2 cells. Biomaterials, 35: 8810–8819. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2014.07.002 
76. Pan Q, Gao C, Wang Y, et al., 2020, Investigation of bone reconstruction using an attenuated immunogenicity xenogenic composite scaffold fabricated by 3D printing. Bio Des Manuf, 3: 396–409. 
77. Golafshan N, Vorndran E, Zaharievski S, et al., 2020, Tough magnesium phosphate-based 3D-printed implants induce bone regeneration in an equine defect model. Biomaterials, 261: 120302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2020.120302 
78. Liu D, Nie W, Li D, et al., 2019, 3D Printed PCL/SrHA scaffold for enhanced bone regeneration. Chem Eng J, 362: 269–279. 
79. Sun H, Hu C, Zhou C, et al., 2020, 3D Printing of calcium phosphate scaffolds with controlled release of antibacterial functions for jaw bone repair. Mater Des, 189: 108540. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2020.108540 
80. e Silva EP, Huang B, Helaehil JV, et al., 2021, In Vivo study of conductive 3D printed pcl/mwcnts scaffolds with electrical stimulation for bone tissue engineering. Bio Des Manuf, 4: 190–202. 
81. Fedorovich NE, Schuurman W, Wijnberg HM, et al., 2012, Biofabrication of osteochondral tissue equivalents by printing topologically defined, cell-laden hydrogel scaffolds. Tissue Eng Part C Methods, 18: 33–44. https://doi.org/10.1089/ten.TEC.2011.0060 
82. Shoichet MS, Li RH, White ML, et al., 1996, Stability of hydrogels used in cell encapsulation: an in vitro comparison of alginate and agarose. Biotechnol Bioeng, 50: 374–381. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0290(19960520)50:4<3 74::AID-BIT4>3.0.CO;2-I 
83. Bendtsen ST, Quinnell SP, Wei M, 2017, Development of a novel alginate-polyvinyl alcohol-hydroxyapatite hydrogel for 3D bioprinting bone tissue engineered scaffolds. J Biomed Mater Res A, 105: 1457–1468. https://doi.org/10.1002/jbm.a.36036 
84. Kim WJ, Yun HS, Kim GH, 2017, An innovative cell-laden α-tcp/collagen scaffold fabricated using a two-step printing process for potential application in regenerating hard tissues. Sci Rep, 7: 3181. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-03455-9 
85. Mishra R, Basu B, Kumar A, 2009, Physical and cytocompatibility properties of bioactive glass-polyvinyl alcohol-sodium alginate biocomposite foams prepared via sol-gel processing for trabecular bone regeneration. J Mater Sci Mater Med, 20: 2493–500. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10856-009-3814-1 
86. Costa JB, Silva-Correia J, Pina S, et al., 2019, Indirect printing of hierarchical patient-specific scaffolds for meniscus tissue engineering. Bio Des Manuf, 2: 225–241. 
87. Wang Q, Ma Z, Wang Y, et al., 2021, Fabrication and characterization of 3D printed biocomposite scaffolds based on pcl and zirconia nanoparticles. Bio Des Manuf, 4: 60–71. 
88. Askari E, Rasouli M, Darghiasi SF, et al., 2021, Reduced graphene oxide-grafted bovine serum albumin/bredigite nanocomposites with high mechanical properties and excellent osteogenic bioactivity for bone tissue engineering. Bio Des Manuf, 4: 243–257. 
89. Lee CH, Rodeo SA, Fortier LA, et al., 2014, Protein-releasing polymeric scaffolds induce fibrochondrocytic differentiation of endogenous cells for knee meniscus regeneration in sheep. Sci Transl Med, 6: 266ra171. https://doi.org/10.1126/scitranslmed.3009696 
90. Ding C, Qiao Z, Jiang W, et al., 2013, Regeneration of a goat femoral head using a tissue-specific, biphasic scaffold fabricated with cad/cam technology. Biomaterials, 34: 6706–6716. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2013.05.038 
91. Kang HW, Lee SJ, Ko IK, et al., 2016, A 3D bioprinting system to produce human-scale tissue constructs with structural integrity. Nat Biotechnol, 34: 312–319. https://doi.org/10.1038/nbt.3413 
92. Raja N, Yun HS, 2016, A simultaneous 3D printing process for the fabrication of bioceramic and cell-laden hydrogel core/shell scaffolds with potential application in bone tissue regeneration. J Mater Chem B, 4: 4707–4716. https://doi.org/10.1039/C6TB00849F 
93. Araldi E, Schipani E, 2010, Hypoxia, HIFs and bone development. Bone, 47: 190–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bone.2010.04.606 
94. Fan W, Crawford R, Xiao Y, 2010, Enhancing In Vivo vascularized bone formation by cobalt chloride-treated bone marrow stromal cells in a tissue engineered periosteum model. Biomaterials, 31: 3580–3589. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2010.01.083 
95. Mamalis AA, Cochran DL, 2011, The therapeutic potential of oxygen tension manipulation via hypoxia inducible factors and mimicking agents in guided bone regeneration. A Review. Arch Oral Biol, 56: 1466–1475. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archoralbio.2011.05.001 
96. Boyette LB, Creasey OA, Guzik L, et al., 2014, Human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells display enhanced clonogenicity but impaired differentiation with hypoxic preconditioning. Stem Cells Transl Med, 3: 241–254. https://doi.org/10.5966/sctm.2013-0079 
97. Merceron C, Vinatier C, Portron S, et al., 2010, Differential effects of hypoxia on osteochondrogenic potential of human adipose-derived stem cells. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol, 298: C355–C364. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpcell.00398.2009 
98. Utting J, Robins S, Brandao-Burch A, et al., 2006, Hypoxia inhibits the growth, differentiation and bone-forming capacity of rat osteoblasts. Exp Cell Res, 312: 1693–1702. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yexcr.2006.02.007 
99. Haque N, Rahman MT, Abu Kasim NH, et al., 2013, Hypoxic culture conditions as a solution for mesenchymal stem cell based regenerative Therapy. ScientificWorldJournal, 2013: 632972. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/632972 
100. Baldwin J, Antille M, Bonda U, et al., 2014, In Vitro pre-vascularisation of tissue-engineered constructs a co-culture perspective. Vasc Cell, 6: 13. https://doi.org/10.1186/2045-824X-6-13 
101. Tufro-McReddie A, Norwood V, Aylor K, et al., 1997, Oxygen regulates vascular endothelial growth factor-mediated vasculogenesis and tubulogenesis. Dev Biol, 183: 139–149. https://doi.org/10.1006/dbio.1997.8513 
102. Shweiki D, Itin A, Soffer D, et al., 1992, Vascular endothelial growth factor induced by hypoxia may mediate hypoxia-initiated angiogenesis. Nature, 359: 843–845. https://doi.org/10.1038/359843a0 
103. Sikavitsas VI, Temenoff JS, Mikos AG, 2001, biomaterials and bone mechanotransduction. Biomaterials, 22: 2581–2593. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0142-9612(01)00002-3 
104. Rubin J, Rubin C, Jacobs CR, 2006, Molecular pathways mediating mechanical signaling in bone. Gene, 367: 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gene.2005.10.028 
105. Weinbaum S, Cowin S, Zeng Y, 1994, A model for the excitation of osteocytes by mechanical loading-induced bone fluid shear stresses. J Biomech, 27: 339–360. https://doi.org/10.1016/0021-9290(94)90010-8 
106. Yeatts AB, Fisher JP, 2011, Bone tissue engineering bioreactors: Dynamic culture and the influence of shear Stress. Bone, 48: 171–181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bone.2010.09.138 
107. Bilodeau K, Mantovani D, 2006, Bioreactors for tissue engineering: focus on mechanical constraints. A comparative review. Tissue Eng, 12: 2367–2383. https://doi.org/10.1089/ten.2006.12.2367 
108. Bancroft GN, Sikavitsas VI, van den Dolder J, et al., 2002, Fluid flow increases mineralized matrix deposition in 3D perfusion culture of marrow stromal osteoblasts in a dose-dependent manner. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 99: 12600–12605. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.202296599 
109. Bancroft GN, Sikavitsas VI, Mikos AG, 2003, Design of a flow perfusion bioreactor system for bone tissue-engineering applications. Tissue Eng, 9: 549–554. https://doi.org/10.1089/107632703322066723 
110. Loozen LD, Wegman F, Öner FC, et al., 2013, Porous bioprinted constructs in bmp-2 non-viral gene therapy for bone tissue engineering. J Mater Chem B, 1: 6619–6626. https://doi.org/10.1039/C3TB21093F 
111. Cunniffe GM, Gonzalez-Fernandez T, Daly A, et al., 2017, Three-dimensional bioprinting of polycaprolactone reinforced gene activated bioinks for bone tissue engineering. Tissue Eng Part A, 23: 891–900. https://doi.org/10.1089/ten.tea.2016.0498 
112. Cidonio G, Alcala-Orozco CR, Lim KS, et al., 2019, Osteogenic and angiogenic tissue formation in high fidelity nanocomposite laponite-gelatin bioinks. Biofabrication, 11: 035027. https://doi.org/10.1088/1758-5090/ab19fd 
113. Cidonio G, Glinka M, Kim YH, et al., 2020, Nanoclay-based 3D printed scaffolds promote vascular ingrowth ex vivo and generate bone mineral tissue In Vitro and In Vivo. Biofabrication, 12: 035010. https://doi.org/10.1088/1758-5090/ab8753 
114. Sun J, Tan H, 2013, Alginate-based biomaterials for regenerative medicine applications. Materials (Basel), 6: 1285–1309. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma6041285 
115. Araiza-Verduzco F, Rodríguez-Velázquez E, Cruz H, et al., 2020, Photocrosslinked alginate-methacrylate hydrogels with modulable mechanical properties: Effect of the molecular conformation and electron density of the methacrylate reactive group. Materials (Basel), 13: 534. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13030534 
116. Wu Y, Hospodiuk M, Peng W, et al., 2018, Porous tissue strands: Avascular building blocks for scalable tissue fabrication. Biofabrication, 11: 015009. https://doi.org/10.1088/1758-5090/aaec22 
117. Wehrle M, Koch F, Zimmermann S, et al., 2019, Examination of hydrogels and mesenchymal stem cell sources for bioprinting of artificial osteogenic tissues. Cell Mol Bioeng, 12: 583–597. 
118. Chiesa I, De Maria C, Lapomarda A, et al., 2020, Endothelial cells support osteogenesis in an in vitro vascularized bone model developed by 3D bioprinting. Biofabrication, 12: 025013. https://doi.org/10.1088/1758-5090/ab6a1d 
119. Kim H, Yang GH, Choi CH, et al., 2018, Gelatin/PVA scaffolds fabricated using a 3d-printing process employed with a low-temperature plate for hard tissue regeneration: fabrication and characterizations. Int J Biol Macromol, 120: 119–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2018.07.159 
120. Wang X, Tolba E, Schröder HC, et al., 2014, Effect of bioglass on growth and biomineralization of saos-2 cells in hydrogel after 3D cell bioprinting. PLoS One, 9: e112497. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0112497 
121. Heo DN, Alioglu MA, Wu Y, et al., 2020, 3D bioprinting of carbohydrazide-modified gelatin into microparticle-suspended oxidized alginate for the fabrication of complex-shaped tissue constructs. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces, 12: 20295–20306. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.0c05096 
122. Costantini M, Idaszek J, Szöke K, et al., 2016, 3D bioprinting of bm-mscs-loaded ecm biomimetic hydrogels for in vitro neocartilage formation. Biofabrication, 8: 035002. https://doi.org/10.1088/1758-5090/8/3/035002 
123. Liu B, Li J, Lei X, et al., 2020, 3D-bioprinted functional and biomimetic hydrogel scaffolds incorporated with nanosilicates to promote bone healing in rat calvarial defect model. Mater Sci Eng C Mater Biol Appl, 112: 110905. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2020.110905 
124. Chimene D, Miller L, Cross LM, et al., 2020, Nanoengineered osteoinductive bioink for 3D bioprinting bone tissue. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces, 12: 15976–15988. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.9b19037 
125. Sun X, Ma Z, Zhao X, et al., 2021, Three-dimensional bioprinting of multicell-laden scaffolds containing bone morphogenic protein-4 for promoting m2 macrophage polarization and accelerating bone defect repair in diabetes mellitus. Bioact Mater, 6: 757–769. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bioactmat.2020.08.030 
126. Dubey N, Ferreira JA, Malda J, et al., 2020, Extracellular matrix/amorphous magnesium phosphate bioink for 3d bioprinting of craniomaxillofacial bone tissue. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces, 12: 23752–23763. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.0c05311 
127. Sawkins MJ, Mistry P, Brown BN, et al., 2015, Cell and protein compatible 3d bioprinting of mechanically strong constructs for bone repair. Biofabrication, 7: 035004. https://doi.org/10.1088/1758-5090/7/3/035004 
128. Ahlfeld T, Doberenz F, Kilian D, et al., 2018, Bioprinting of mineralized constructs utilizing multichannel plotting of a self-setting calcium phosphate cement and a cell-laden Bioink. Biofabrication, 10: 045002. https://doi.org/10.1088/1758-5090/aad36d 
129. Zhai X, Ruan C, Ma Y, et al., 2018, 3D-bioprinted osteoblast-laden nanocomposite hydrogel constructs with induced microenvironments promote cell viability, differentiation, and osteogenesis both In Vitro and In Vivo. Adv Sci (Weinh), 5: 1700550. https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.201700550 
130. Campos DF, Blaeser A, Buellesbach K, et al., 2016, Bioprinting organotypic hydrogels with improved mesenchymal stem cell remodeling and mineralization properties for bone tissue engineering. Adv Healthc Mater, 5: 1336–1345. https://doi.org/10.1002/adhm.201501033 
131. Anada T, Pan CC, Stahl AM, et al., 2019, Vascularized bone-mimetic hydrogel constructs by 3D bioprinting to promote osteogenesis and angiogenesis. Int J Mol Sci, 20: 1096. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20051096 
132. Bernal PN, Delrot P, Loterie D, et al., 2019, Volumetric bioprinting of complex living-tissue constructs within seconds. Adv Mater, 31: 1904209. 
133. Heo DN, Ayan B, Dey M, et al., 2020, Aspiration-assisted bioprinting of co-cultured osteogenic spheroids for bone tissue engineering. Biofabrication, 13: 015013. https://doi.org/10.1088/1758-5090/abc1bf 
134. Rukavina P, Koch F, Wehrle M, et al., 2020, In Vivo evaluation of bioprinted prevascularized bone tissue. Biotechnol Bioeng, 117: 3902-11. https://doi.org/10.1002/bit.27527 
135. Ashammakhi N, Ahadian S, Xu C, et al., 2019, Bioinks and bioprinting technologies to make heterogeneous and biomimetic tissue constructs. Mater Today Bio, 1: 100008. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtbio.2019.100008 
136. Mercado-Pagán ÁE, Stahl AM, Shanjani Y, et al., 2015, Vascularization in bone tissue engineering constructs. Ann Biomed Eng, 43: 718–729. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10439-015-1253-3 
137. Ramtani S, 2008, Electro-mechanics of bone remodelling. Int J Eng Sci, 46: 1173–1182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijengsci.2008.06.001 
138. Moura D, Pereira RF, Gonçalves IC, 2022, Recent advances on bioprinting of hydrogels containing carbon materials. Mater Today Chem, 23: 100617. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtchem.2021.100617