AccScience Publishing / IJB / Volume 12 / Issue 2 / DOI: 10.36922/IJB026020016
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RESEARCH ARTICLE

Roughness-engineered 3D-printed microfluidics for continuous glucose and lactate sensing in 3D in vitro tissue models

Yaoxiang Xu1,2,3,4† ,  Yali Li1† ,  Jinpeng Liu1,2 ,  Yao Yu1,2 ,  Ming Sun1,2 ,  Xiao Zhang1,2 ,  Zexian Xu1,2,3,4* ,  Jian Sun1,2,3,4*
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1 The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao, Shandong, China
2 School of Stomatology, Qingdao University, Qingdao, Shandong, China
3 Dental Digital Medicine and 3D Printing Engineering Laboratory of Qingdao, School of Stomatology, Qingdao University, Qingdao, Shandong, China
†These authors contributed equally to this work.
IJB 2026, 12(2), 026020016 https://doi.org/10.36922/IJB026020016
Received: 10 January 2026 | Revised: 10 March 2026 | Accepted: 17 March 2026 | Published online: 30 April 2026
© 2026 by the Author(s). This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ )
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Abstract

Integrating stimuli-responsive nanoplatforms into 3D-printed scaffolds offers a sophisticated approach to mimicking the complex microenvironment of bone healing while minimizing the side effects associated with high-dose growth factor therapy. This study reports the design of a mesoporous silica-based dual-drug delivery system co-loaded with dexamethasone (DEX) and bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2) to harness their synergistic osteogenic potential while minimizing BMP-2-associated side effects. Mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) were synthesized to encapsulate DEX, followed by a polydopamine (PDA) coating formed via self-polymerization under mild alkaline conditions. BMP-2 was subsequently immobilized on the PDA layer, yielding pH-responsive DEX@MSNs/PDA/BMP-2 nanoparticles. Characterization confirmed uniform morphology, efficient loading, and controlled release, with accelerated release under acidic conditions, mimicking bone-defect environments. In vitro, dual-drug nanoparticles promoted osteogenic differentiation of preosteoblasts in a concentration-dependent manner, as evidenced by increased alkaline phosphatase activity, enhanced calcium deposition, and upregulated osteogenic genes. The nanoparticles were incorporated into three-dimensionally (3D)-printed polylactic acid/nano-hydroxyapatite scaffolds via freeze-drying, yielding composites with favorable porosity, mechanical properties, hydrophilicity, and biodegradability. In a rat calvarial defect model, implantation of the composite scaffolds significantly improved bone regeneration and neovascularization relative to controls, as demonstrated by micro-computed tomography and histological analyses. The results demonstrate that PDA-coated MSNs co-delivering DEX and BMP-2, integrated into 3D-printed scaffolds, provide a biocompatible and effective platform for bone tissue engineering. This approach combines pH-responsive release, dual-drug synergy, and structural support, offering translational potential for mandibular defect repair.

Graphical abstract
Keywords
Mesoporous silica
Polydopamine
Bone morphogenetic protein-2
Dexamethasone
Bone repair
Composite scaffold
Funding
This research was funded by the Qingdao Stomatology Climbing Peak Project (grant number: 2022-11-29-07), Development and Clinical Application of a Mental Disease Diagnostic System Based on Facial Expressions and Multidimensional Physiological Signals (grant number: 25-1-5-smjk-19-nsh) and the Clinical Medicine+X Project of Qingdao University Hospital (grant number: QDFY+X2023207).
Conflict of interest
The authors declare they have no competing interests.
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International Journal of Bioprinting, Electronic ISSN: 2424-8002 Print ISSN: 2424-7723, Published by AccScience Publishing
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