AccScience Publishing / AJWEP / Online First / DOI: 10.36922/AJWEP026310213
Submit to AJWEP
Cite this article
4
Download
21
Views
Related Info Links
Google Scholar
More by Authors Links
Siyanda Nkwenkwe
Journal Browser
Volume | Year
Issue
Search
News and Announcements
View All
ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

Microbiological quality of inland and coastal springs: Escherichia coli, other coliforms, and implications for public health

Siyanda Nkwenkwe1* ,  Asabonga Mngeni2 ,  Motebang Nakin3 ,  Simbarashe Ndhleve3
Show Less
1 Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Natural Science, Walter Sisulu University, Mthatha, Eastern Cape , South Africa
2 Directorate of Postgraduate Studies, Walter Sisulu University, Mthatha, Eastern Cape , South Africa
3 Centre for Global Change, Walter Sisulu University, Mthatha, Eastern Cape , South Africa
AJWEP, 026310213 https://doi.org/10.36922/AJWEP026310213
Received: 30 July 2026 | Revised: 20 September 2026 | Accepted: 23 September 2026 | Published online: 2 November 2026
© 2026 by the Author(s). This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ )
Download PDF
XML
Cite
Abstract

Untreated springs remain important domestic water sources in rural communities, yet their microbial safety and spatial and seasonal variability are insufficiently characterised. This study evaluated concentrations of  Escherichia coli and other coliforms in inland and coastal springs within the King Sabata Dalindyebo Local Municipality, South Africa. Ten springs, five inland and five coastal, were sampled on five occasions during both wet and dry seasons, producing 100 water samples. Microorganisms were enumerated by membrane filtration, and concentrations were expressed as colony-forming units per 100 mL (CFU/100 mL). Separate negative binomial generalised linear mixed-effects models were fitted for each microbial indicator, with region and season as fixed effects and spring identity as a random intercept to account for repeated observations. E. coli was detected in all samples at concentrations ranging from 4 to 470 CFU/100 mL. After adjustment for region and repeated observations within springs, expected  E. coli concentrations were 38.6% lower during the wet season than during the dry season (incidence rate ratio [IRR] = 0.614, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.468–0.805, p < 0.001). The adjusted inland–coastal difference in  E. coli was not statistically significant (IRR = 1.346, 95% CI: 0.912–1.987, p = 0.135). Expected other-coliform concentrations were 19.3% lower during the wet season (IRR = 0.807, 95% CI: 0.720–0.905, p < 0.001) and 23.4% higher in inland springs compared with coastal springs (IRR = 1.234, 95% CI: 1.019–1.494, p = 0.031). None of the samples complied with the South African National Standard 241-1:2015 requirement for E. coli to be undetectable in 100 mL of drinking water. The findings demonstrate persistent faecal contamination across the investigated springs, with seasonal variation showing a more consistent association with microbial concentrations than broad inland–coastal classification. Routine microbial monitoring, improved spring protection, and effective household water treatment are required to reduce exposure to E. coli in communities that depend on untreated spring water.

Graphical abstract
Keywords
Faecal indicators
Membrane filtration
Rural sanitation
Source protection
Funding
This research received financial support from the South African Water Research Commission (WRC) and the Centre for Global Change, Walter Sisulu University (grant no. C2024/2025-01674). The authors gratefully acknowledge both organisations for their contributions to the conduct of the study.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
References
  1. Keegan-Treloar R, Irvine DJ, Solórzano-Rivas SC, Werner AD, Banks EW, Currell MJ. Fault-controlled springs: a review. Earth Sci Rev. 2022;230:104058. doi: 10.1016/j.earscirev.2022.104058
  2. Kouassi KJM, Lachassagne P, Mangoua OMJ, Sombo AP, Dibi B. Identifying the origin of springs in weathered-fractured crystalline aquifers using a hydrogeophysical approach. Sci Rep. 2024;14(1):12977. doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-63748-8
  3. Ansari F, Dewantoro A, Putri I. Assessment of communities' water springs in Gowa Regency, South Sulawesi Province, Indonesia. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci. 2021;909(1):012008. doi: 10.1088/1755-1315/909/1/012008
  4. Dumaru B, Kayastha SP, Pandey VP. Spring water assessment for quality and suitability for various uses: the case of Thuligaad watershed, western Nepal. Environ Earth Sci. 2021;80(17):586. doi: 10.1007/s12665-021-09826-w
  5. Ranjan P, Pandey P, Pandey V, Lepcha P. Development of seepage spring for rural water security. IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng. 2021;1070(1):012047. doi: 10.1088/1757-899X/1070/1/012047
  6. Cabral JPS. Water microbiology: bacterial pathogens and water. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2010;7(10):3657-3703. doi: 10.3390/ijerph7103657
  7. Odonkor ST, Ampofo JK. Escherichia coli as an indicator of bacteriological quality of water: an overview. Microbiol Res (Pavia). 2013;4(1):e2. doi: 10.4081/mr.2013.e2
  8. World Health Organization. Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality: Fourth Edition Incorporating the First and Second Addenda. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 2022. Accessed September 19, 2026. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240045064
  9. Bain R, Cronk R, Wright J, Yang H, Slaymaker T, Bartram J. Fecal contamination of drinking-water in low- and middle-income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Med. 2014;11(5):e1001644. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1001644
  10. Raina UM, Shafi N, Shahid N, et al. Assessing rural drinking water quality, sanitation and hygiene practices in Muzaffar Garh District, Pakistan. J Health Wellness Community Res. 2025;3(9):e454. doi: 10.61919/0whdys10
  11. Ekici G, Dümen E. Escherichia coli and food safety. In: Starčič Erjavec M, ed. The Universe of Escherichia coli. London, England: IntechOpen; 2019. doi: 10.5772/intechopen.82375
  12. Elmonir W, Remela EMA, Alwakil YS. Diversity, virulence and antibiogram traits of Escherichia coli recovered from potable water sources in Gharbia, Egypt. J Water Health. 2020;18(3):430-438. doi: 10.2166/wh.2020.239
  13. Megchún-García JV, Landeros-Sánchez C, Soto-Estrada A, et al. Total coliforms and Escherichia coli in surface and subsurface water from a sugarcane agroecosystem in Veracruz, Mexico. J Agric Sci. 2015;7(6):110-119. doi: 10.5539/jas.v7n6p110
  14. Gwimbi P, George M, Ramphalile M. Bacterial contamination of drinking water sources in rural villages of Mohale Basin, Lesotho: exposures through neighbourhood sanitation and hygiene practices. Environ Health Prev Med. 2019;24(1):33. doi: 10.1186/s12199-019-0790-z
  15. Odonkor ST, Mahami T. Escherichia coli as a tool for disease risk assessment of drinking water sources. Int J Microbiol. 2020;2020:2534130. doi: 10.1155/2020/2534130
  16. Tallon P, Magajna B, Lofranco C, Leung KT. Microbial indicators of faecal contamination in water: a current perspective. Water Air Soil Pollut. 2005;166(1-4):139-166. doi: 10.1007/s11270-005-7905-4
  17. Health Canada. Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality: Guideline Technical Document—Total Coliforms. Ottawa, Canada: Government of Canada; 2020. Accessed September 19, 2026. https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/publications/healthy-living/guidelines-canadian-drinking-water-quality-guideline-technical-document-total-coliforms.html
  18. Akita LG, Laudien J, Biney CA, Akrong MO. A baseline study of spatial variability of bacteria (total coliform, E. coli, and Enterococcus spp.) as biomarkers of pollution in ten tropical Atlantic beaches: concern for environmental and public health. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2021;28(36):50941-50965. doi: 10.1007/s11356-021-15432-x
  19. Riley LW. Distinguishing pathovars from nonpathovars: Escherichia coli. Microbiol Spectr. 2020;8(4):AME-0014-2020. doi: 10.1128/microbiolspec.AME-0014-2020
  20. Zamxaka M, Pironcheva G, Muyima NYO. Bacterial community patterns of domestic water sources in the Gogogo and Nkonkobe areas of the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Water SA. 2004;30(3):341-346. doi: 10.4314/wsa.v30i3.5082
  21. Edokpayi JN, Rogawski ET, Kahler DM, et al. Challenges to sustainable safe drinking water: a case study of water quality and use across seasons in rural communities in Limpopo Province, South Africa. Water (Basel). 2018;10(2):159. doi: 10.3390/w10020159
  22. Awuah F. Application of microorganisms to determine the impact of infiltration layer and season on pit latrine groundwater contamination. Sustinere J Environ Sustain. 2024;8(3):357-367. doi: 10.22515/sustinere.jes.v8i3.425
  23. Buckerfield SJ, Quilliam RS, Bussière L, et al. Chronic urban hotspots and agricultural drainage drive microbial pollution of karst water resources in rural developing regions. Sci Total Environ. 2020;744:140898. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140898
  24. Mogane B, Kachienga L, Kamika I, Ngobeni-Nyambi R, Momba MNB. Distribution of host-specific Bacteroidales marker genes in water sources of selected rural areas of Vhembe District, South Africa. Sci Rep. 2024;14(1):19758. doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-68771-3
  25. Wilson AM, Martin SL, Verhougstraete MP, et al. Detangling seasonal relationships of fecal contamination sources and correlates with indicators in Michigan watersheds. Microbiol Spectr. 2022;10(3):e00415-22. doi: 10.1128/spectrum.00415-22
  26. Maželienė Ž, Jarienė G, Aleksandravičienė A. Microbial and chemical contamination in springs of Northern and Central Lithuania. Microbiol Res (Pavia). 2025;16(11):229. doi: 10.3390/microbiolres16110229
  27. Montiel M, Villalba-Briones R, Berruz J, et al. Assessment of spatio-temporal variation in microbial quality of groundwater for irrigation and drinking water: a case study in Santa Lucia canton, Ecuador. Groundw Sustain Dev. 2023;23:101033. doi: 10.1016/j.gsd.2023.101033
  28. Zhang Z, Tang J, Wang L, Zhu C, Xun Q, Rosado D. Amplified impacts of human activities: non-linear responses of riverine microbial communities to distribution of land use. J Environ Manage. 2025;373:123937. doi: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2024.123937
  29. Potgieter S, Pinto A, Sigudu M, du Preez HH, Ncube E, Venter SN. Long-term spatial and temporal microbial community dynamics in a large-scale drinking water distribution system with multiple disinfectant regimes. Water Res. 2018;139:406-419. doi: 10.1016/j.watres.2018.03.077
  30. Walsh JF, Hunt RJ, Anderson AC, Owens DW, Rice N. Temporally dense monitoring of pathogen occurrence at four drinking-water well sites—insights and implications. Water Res. 2024;259:121809. doi: 10.1016/j.watres.2024.121809
  31. American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, Water Environment Federation. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. 20th ed. Washington, DC: American Public Health Association; 1998.
  32. Pineau L, Cordier V. Water sample stability. Environ Technol Innov. 2025;38:104080. doi: 10.1016/j.eti.2025.104080
  33. Harmel RD, Wagner K, Martin E, et al. Effects of field storage method on E. coli concentrations measured in storm water runoff. Environ Monit Assess. 2016;188(3):170. doi: 10.1007/s10661-016-5183-9
  34. Wright RC. The seasonality of bacterial quality of water in a tropical developing country (Sierra Leone). J Hyg (Lond). 1986;96(1):75-82. doi: 10.1017/S0022172400062550
  35. Abia ALK, James C, Ubomba-Jaswa E, Momba MNB. Microbial remobilisation on riverbed sediment disturbance in experimental flumes and a human-impacted river: implication for water resource management and public health in developing sub-Saharan African countries. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2017;14(3):306. doi: 10.3390/ijerph14030306
  36. Kumpel E, Cock-Esteb A, Duret M, de Waal D, Khush R. Seasonal variation in drinking and domestic water sources and quality in Port Harcourt, Nigeria. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2017;96(2):437-445. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.16-0175
  37. Savio D, Stadler P, Reischer GH, et al. Spring water of an alpine karst aquifer is dominated by a taxonomically stable but discharge-responsive bacterial community. Front Microbiol. 2019;10:28. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.00028
  38. Martin NH, Trmčić A, Hsieh TH, Boor KJ, Wiedmann M. The evolving role of coliforms as indicators of unhygienic processing conditions in dairy foods. Front Microbiol. 2016;7:1549. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.01549
  39. Paruch AM, Mæhlum T. Specific features of Escherichia coli that distinguish it from coliform and thermotolerant coliform bacteria and define it as the most accurate indicator of faecal contamination in the environment. Ecol Indic. 2012;23:140-142. doi: 10.1016/j.ecolind.2012.03.026
  40. Devane ML, Moriarty EM, Weaver L, Cookson A, Gilpin BJ. Fecal indicator bacteria from environmental sources: strategies for identification to improve water quality monitoring. Water Res. 2020;185:116204. doi: 10.1016/j.watres.2020.116204
  41. Ishii S, Sadowsky MJ. Escherichia coli in the environment: implications for water quality and human health. Microbes Environ. 2008;23(2):101-108. doi: 10.1264/jsme2.23.101
  42. Pachepsky YA, Shelton DR. Escherichia coli and fecal coliforms in freshwater and estuarine sediments. Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol. 2011;41(12):1067-1110. doi: 10.1080/10643380903392718
  43. Gebrewahd A, Adhanom G, Gebremichail G, et al. Bacteriological quality and associated risk factors of drinking water in Eastern Zone, Tigrai, Ethiopia, 2019. Trop Dis Travel Med Vaccines. 2020;6(1):15. doi: 10.1186/s40794-020-00116-0
  44. Ashuro Z, Aregu MB, Kanno GG, et al. Bacteriological quality of drinking water and associated factors at internally displaced people sites, Gedeo Zone, Southern Ethiopia: a cross-sectional study. Environ Health Insights. 2021;15:11786302211026469. doi: 10.1177/11786302211026469
  45. Murphy CM, Strawn LK, Chapin TK, et al. Factors associated with E. coli levels in and Salmonella contamination of agricultural water differed between North and South Florida waterways. Front Water. 2022;3:750673. doi: 10.3389/frwa.2021.750673
  46. Murphy CM, Weller D, Ovissipour R, Boyer R, Strawn LK. Spatial versus nonspatial variance in fecal indicator bacteria differs within and between ponds. J Food Prot. 2023;86(3):100045. doi: 10.1016/j.jfp.2023.100045
  47. Lutterodt G, Miyittah M, Addy B, Ansa E, Takase M. Groundwater pollution assessment in a coastal aquifer in Cape Coast, Ghana. Heliyon. 2021;7(4):e06751. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e06751
Next article in this issue
Share
Back to top
Asian Journal of Water, Environment and Pollution, Electronic ISSN: 1875-8568 Print ISSN: 0972-9860, Published by AccScience Publishing
We use cookies on our website to ensure you get the best experience.
Read more about our cookies here
Accept