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REVIEW ARTICLE

Breast cancer: A review of risk factors, prognostic markers, diagnostics, and treatment approaches

Samra Bibi1 ,  Iqra Suleman2 ,  Shakeela Afzal3 ,  Muhammad Saad4 ,  Ghulam Mustafa4 ,  Shahid Aziz 4*
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1 Institute of Nursing, Wah Medical College, Wah Cantt, University of Health Sciences, Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan
2 Department of Biosciences, Quaid Campus, University of Wah, Wah Cantt, Punjab, Pakistan
3 Department of Gastroenterology, Pakistan Institute of Medical Sciences, Islamabad, Pakistan
4 Department of Medical Laboratory Technology, Institute of Allied Health Sciences, Wah Medical College, National University of Medical Sciences, Rawalpindi, Punjab, Pakistan
CP, 025390061 https://doi.org/10.36922/CP025390061
Received: 22 September 2025 | Revised: 23 April 2026 | Accepted: 11 May 2026 | Published online: 19 June 2026
© 2026 by the Author(s). This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ )
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Abstract

Breast cancer remains a major global health challenge and was responsible for approximately 670000 deaths worldwide in 2022. Despite advances in screening, diagnosis, and treatment, it continues to be one of the leading causes of cancer-related mortality among women. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the major risk factors associated with breast cancer development and progression, emphasizing their relevance to prevention and early detection strategies. It further examines current diagnostic approaches, including imaging modalities and molecular characterization, as well as key prognostic biomarkers used for disease classification and clinical decision-making. Particular attention is given to estrogen receptor, progesterone receptor, and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2, highlighting their roles in tumor biology, prognosis, and therapeutic response. The review also discusses contemporary treatment strategies, including surgery, chemotherapy, radiotherapy, endocrine therapy, targeted therapies, and immunotherapy, and considers their clinical benefits, limitations, and associated adverse effects. In addition, the growing role of biomarker-driven personalized medicine is explored, demonstrating how molecular profiling can guide treatment selection and improve patient outcomes. By integrating current knowledge on risk factors, diagnostic methods, prognostic biomarkers, and therapeutic interventions, this review provides a comprehensive perspective on breast cancer management and future directions in precision oncology.

Keywords
Breast cancer
Risk factors
Classification
Diagnosis
Prognostic biomarkers
Personalized medicine
Treatment
Funding
None.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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